Marine Tsiklauri - The Aspects of Civic Consciousness in Georgian Literature

Nino Popiashvili - Woman writer – Georgian literary experience

Elguja Khintibidze - Georgian Literature in European Scholarship


Early Georgian literature was influenced by two distinctive civilizations-medieval Eastern Orthodox Christianity and the civilization of Persia. From the 6th to the 10th cent. the literature, produced primarily in monasteries, was ecclesiastical; translations of the Bible were the principal works. From the end of the 11th cent. to the early 13th cent., classical old Georgian poetry, secular in nature and strongly influenced by the Persian epic, enjoyed its greatest flowering. The masterpiece of this period was the epic poem by Shota Rustaveli, The Man in the Panther's Skin (tr. 1912). Nationalistic in feeling, it is distinguished by a remarkable metrical pattern of fluent rhymes and subtle alliterations. In this same period, the poet Chakrudkhadze wrote 20 odes, titled Tamariani, and Ioane Shavteli completed Abdul Messiah.

After the 13th cent. Mongol invasion there was little important literature over the next few centuries.

In the 17th cent., King Teimuraz I and King Archil Sulkhan contributed extensively to the evolution of Georgia's modern prose, and Saba Orbelian wrote the outstanding Book of Wisdom and Lies.

In the 18th cent. the foremost writers were David Guramishvili, author of The Woes of Kartli, and the lyric poet Bessarion Gabashvili. Throughout these years troubadour literature also evolved.

In the 19th cent., romanticism was the dominant style, as seen in the writings of Alexander Chavchavadze, Nikoloz Baratashvili, and Grigol Orbeliani. The outstanding representatives of classical Georgian poetry were Ilia Chavchavadze and Alaki Tsereteli.

In the early 20th cent., A. Abashili and S. Shanshiashvili were the leading writers of the pre-Soviet period. Major Georgian literary figures, including the poets Paolo Iashvili and Titsian Tabidze and the novelist Mikheil Javakhishvili, were victims of Stalin's purges. In the post-Stalin period, Georgian writers such as the novelist Konstantine Gamsakhurdia, the playwright Shalva Dadiani, and the poet Ioseb Grishashvili, reflected Soviet literary trends, styles, and topics.

More recent writing, such as the novels of Nodor Dumbadze and the poems of Ana Kalandadze, has emphasized nationalist themes anticipating national independence.




Origins and early development

The origins of Georgian literature date to the 4th century, when the Georgian people were converted to Christianity and a Georgian alphabet was developed. The emergence of a rich literary language and an original religious literature was simultaneous with a massive effort to translate texts from Greek, Armenian, and Syriac. Among the earliest works in Georgian is the prose Tsameba tsmidisa Shushanikisi dedoplisa (470 or later; “The Passion of Saint Queen Shushanik”), attributed to Iakob Tsurtaveli. Old Georgian ecclesiastical literature reached its acme in the 10th century with the lyrical hymns composed and collected by Ioane Minchkhi and Mikael Modrekili and with such biographies of the Church Fathers as Tskhovreba Seraapionisi (c. 910; “The Life of Serapion”) by Basil Zarzmeli and Grigol Khandztelis tskhovreba (c. 950; “Grigol of Khandzta”) by Giorgi Merchule. Chronicles—such as Moktseva Kartlisa (c. 950; “The Conversion of Georgia”) and Kartlis tskhovreba (compiled between the 10th and 13th centuries; “The Life of Kartli”)—evolved from legend to genuine historiography.

With the weakening of the Byzantine Empire in the 10th century, Georgia’s rulers achieved prosperity sufficient to allow a secular literature to develop. King David IV (the Builder) and, later, Queen Tamara, his great-granddaughter, oversaw a cultural golden age that reached from the late 11th to the early 13th century. They encouraged and commissioned works in all the arts but particularly in poetry and prose. (They themselves, like most of Georgia’s Bagratid monarchs, were also writers.) Influenced by Persian literature—especially Ferdowsī’s Shāh-nāmeh (“Book of Kings”), an 11th-century epic—Georgian courtly romance and epic flourished. In verse, Georgia acquired its national monument, Shota Rustaveli’s extravagant but sophisticated courtly romance Vepkhvistqaosani (c. 1220; The Knight in the Panther’s Skin). It was preceded and perhaps influenced by Amiran-Darejaniani (probably c. 1050; Eng. trans. Amiran-Darejaniani), a wild prose tale of battling knights, attributed by Rustaveli to Mose Khoneli, who is otherwise unknown.

Georgia’s devastation by Genghis Khan in the 1220s and by Timur in the 1390s resulted in the loss of much of the literature created during the golden age—what survives today is only a fraction of what was written—and effectively ended literary production for two centuries. A renaissance began in the early 17th century with the harrowingly personal, though ornate, poetry of King Teimuraz I; among his works is Tsigni da tsameba Ketevan dedoplisa (“The Book and Passion of Queen Saint Ketevan”), a gruesome account of his mother’s martyrdom written in 1625, soon after her death. Less-inspired authors were content to fabricate sequels to Rustaveli’s The Knight in the Panther’s Skin, but contact with Italian and French missionaries and ambassadors in Tbilisi slowly crystallized into fresh ideas.


The 18th and 19th centuries

In the early 18th century, Sulkhan-Saba Orbeliani, supported by his pupil and nephew King Vakhtang VI, introduced modern schooling and printing to Georgia. Orbeliani also compiled the first extant Georgian dictionary and wrote a book of instructive fables, Tsigni sibrdzne-sitsruisa (c. 1700; The Book of Wisdom and Lies). Two major poets emerged in the next generation: Davit Guramishvili used colloquial language to write revealing autobiographical poetry that has a Romantic immediacy, and Besiki (pseudonym of Besarion Gabashvili) adapted conventional poetics to passionate love poetry. Both died in the 1790s while in exile.

During the 18th century, Georgia sought salvation from Ottoman and Persian rule by making an alliance with Russia. In 1801 Russia abolished the Georgian state, dethroned its kings, and made Russian the language of administration. But Russian rule was fairly bloodless and opened routes to European culture. A generation of Georgian Romantic poets was inspired by French and German literature and philosophy. Aleksandre Chavchavadze, father-in-law to Russian playwright Aleksandr Sergeyevich Griboyedov, was an original, contemplative poet; Nikoloz Baratashvili was a visionary genius comparable to the English poet John Keats.

Prose fiction, which could be sustained only by a large educated readership, was slower to develop. By the 1860s, however, fiction and nonfiction prose was flourishing. Ilia Chavchavadze and Akaki Tsereteli had immense moral and intellectual authority and measurable narrative talent, as displayed, for example, in Chavchavadze’s Katsia-adamiani? (1859–63; “Is That a Human Being?”), which attacks the degenerate gentry, and Tsereteli’s fine autobiographical Chemi tavgadasavali (1894–1909; “The Story of My Life”). Aleksandre Qazbegi was the first commercially successful prose writer in Georgia, his melodramatic fiction drawing on the legends and pagan ethos of the Caucasian highlanders.

The development of Georgian theatre, which needed prosperous city dwellers, was stunted during the 19th century. Its sole significant dramatist was Giorgi Eristavi, who edited a literary journal, directed the Georgian-language theatre (which functioned only sporadically until the 1880s), and translated Russian comedies. He wrote one effective drama, Sheshlili (written 1839, first performed 1861; “The Madwoman”), about women in conflict, as well as two successful comedies, Dava, anu tochka da zapetaia (written 1840, first performed 1850; “The Lawsuit, or Semicolon”) and Gaqra (1849; “The Family Settlement”). From the 19th century through the turn of the 21st, Georgian theatre had fine actors and directors but an impoverished repertoire.


The 20th century

Vazha-Pshavela (pseudonym of Luka Razikashvili) is modern Georgia’s greatest genius. His finest works are tragic narrative poems (Stumar-maspindzeli [1893; “Host and Guest”], Gvelis mchameli [1901; “The Snake-Eater”]) that combine Caucasian folk myth with human tragedy. Young Georgian poets and prose writers were subsequently inspired by European Decadence and Russian Symbolism as well as by the highlanders’ folklore that imbues all Vazha-Pshavela’s language, imagery, and outlook. His greatest pupils were the dramatist and novelist Grigol Robakidze and the poet Galaktion Tabidze. Robakidze developed the themes of Vazha-Pshavela’s “The Snake-Eater” in The Snake Skin, a tale of a poet’s search for his real identity. Robakidze also led a group known as the Tsisperqnatslebi (“Blue Horns”); its best poet was Titsian Tabidze, whose work was indebted to Russian poetry. From 1918 to 1921 Georgia was an independent state; despite war and destitution, the period witnessed an explosion of poetry, prose, and “happenings”—anarchistic artistic and political outbursts stimulated by the mixture in Tbilisi of the refugee Russian avant-garde and Georgian poets heady with their liberation.

Invasion by the Soviet Red Army in February 1921 sobered Georgian writers. In the 1920s and ’30s the prose writer Mikheil Javakhishvili—who, having been sentenced to death by Soviet authorities but later released, went on to become a great writer—produced inventive and captivating prose that often tells the story of a sympathetic doomed rogue, as in the novels Kvachi Kvachantiradze da misi tavgadasavali (1924; “Kvachi Kvachantiradze and His Adventures”) and Arsena Marabdeli (1933–36; “Arsena of Marabda”). The most enigmatic Georgian prose writer of the 20th century was Konstantine Gamsakhurdia; like Robakidze, he was influenced by German culture (especially the philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche), and in his work he combined the ethos of the Austro-German poet Rainer Maria Rilke with Caucasian folk myth. Befriended by Lavrenty Pavlovich Beria—then Stalin’s satrap in the Caucasus, later the director of the Soviet secret police—Gamsakhurdia was free to write grandiose novels on contemporary, mythological, and historical themes.

Georgian writers were decimated by the Bolsheviks in the 1920s; the Great Purge of the 1930s destroyed the survivors. Even those few who survived the holocaust overseen by Beria lost friends, family, nerve, and inspiration. The post-Stalinist thaw was slower in Georgia than in Russia. Fine lyrical poets achieved great popularity in the 1960s: Ana Kalandadze (who had been a harbinger of literary renewal in the 1940s, when her earliest work was published), Murman Lebanidze, and Mukhran Machavariani. The relative liberalism experienced under Eduard Shevardnadze after his appointment in 1972 as first secretary of the Communist Party in Georgia empowered two important novelists. Chabua Amirejibi continued in the spirit of Javakhishvili’s novels centred on rogues with the magnificent Data Tutashkhia (1972) and the autobiographical Gora Mborgali (1995), while Otar Chiladze, with Gzaze erti katsi midioda (1972–73; “A Man Went Down the Road”) and Qovelman chemman mpovnelman (1976; “Everyone That Findeth Me”), began a series of lengthy atmospheric works that fuse Sumerian and Hellenic myth with the predicaments of a Georgian intellectual.


Independence and beyond

The civil war, economic collapse, and emigration that followed independence in the 1990s crippled Georgian publishing and theatre and created an environment where literature could not flourish. But as the country stabilized in the mid-1990s under Shevardnadze, who had by then become its head of state, destitute writers were able to begin again. Chiladze’s novel Avelum (1995), for example, was a notable account of a Georgian intellectual watching his personal “empire of love” crumble together with the Soviet empire. Georgia’s Rose Revolution of 2003 and the emergence of a relatively well-off middle class enabled publishers and theatres to operate. While the older generation of writers remained active—Chiladze published the novel Godori (“The Basket”) in 2003, and Amirejibi’s Giorgi brtsqinvale (“George the Brilliant”), a historical novel preaching national pride, appeared in 2005—a new generation of prose writers appeared, notably the prolific Aka Morchiladze (pseudonym of Giorgi Akhvlediani). His best work includes Mogzauroba Karabaghshi (1992; “Journey to Karabakh”) and a series of semi-fantastic novels about an archipelago called Madatov that is populated by Georgians. Morchiladze’s work shows Georgian literature’s reorientation in the early 21st century from Russian toward English and American influences. The work (some of it written in English) of playwright Lasha Bughadze also attracted international acclaim. A new generation of poets—including Maia Sarishvili, Rati Amaghlobeli, and Kote Qubaneishvili (Kote Kubaneishvili)—showed an inventiveness and irreverence derived from their working as public performers and participating in international festivals.


Donald Rayfield



About Georgian Literature

A very short introduction

Georgian literature is one of the most ancient and richest in the world. Nowadays, Georgian Literary critics perceive that the first Georgian Literary work is “The Life of Saint Nino” dating back to IV century and which is incorporated in "The Conversion of Kartli”s chronicles (XI century). After reconstructing its prototype and analyzing its ancient layers Georgian researchers have revealed that "The Life of Saint Nino" can be traced back to IV century. For a long time it was considered that the first extant piece of Georgian Literature was "The Martyrdom of the Holy Queen Shushanik" purported to have been written in the V century by Iakob Khutsesi. Though, even then the scientists knew that this written text did not indicate the beginning of the Georgian Literature, but its development in a certain period.

While talking about Georgian Literature we should take into consideration the richest inheritance coming from the pagan period. Except the patterns of materialistic culture it includes the remains of ancient writings preserved in the later literary works, the patterns of folklore and mythos, traditions and the information about the existence of philosophical school in Kolkheti. It should be noted that the adoption of Christianity played a vital role in the formation of Georgian national culture as it is the Christian culture in its essence.

Georgian alphabet is very old. Some of the epigraphic writings are dated back to the 5th century A.D. (Palestine, Bolnisi)

The Georgian original writing is one among the 14 alphabetic writing systems.

The most important event in the history of Georgia was the proclamation of Christianity as the state religion in about 326. Apostle Andrew the First Called was the first to preach Christianity in Georgia. St. Nino has enlightened Georgia and thanks to her Georgia became a Christian country and many churches have been built.

 Two ancient genres of Georgian literature are Hagiography and Hymnography.

Georgian Hagiographic writings are documentary by nature and often have poly-genric structure. On the background of the hero’s life one can see the cultural peculiarities of that epoch that make the text more interesting. For this reason in hagiographic works the reflections of all types of ecclesiastic writings are visible: Bibliology, Dogmatics, Polemics, Asceticism, Canonics, Lithurgics, Mysticism, or other Apocryphal writings and studies about Christian Saints and Holy things. It is a part of liturgy and stands close to people, and expresses the national ideals.

Hymnography gave birth to Georgian verse. A vast number of them are the samples for the poets of all times. The unique masterpiece of X century is Mikhael Modrekeli’s “Satselitsdo Iadgari“ introducing a number of Georgian poet Hymnographs (Mikhael Modrekeli, Ioane Minchkhi, Ioane Mtbevari, Kurdanaia, Ezra, Stephane Sananoisidze, Ioane Kinkozisdze). In the following XI-XIII centuries a number of outstanding hymnographs have been added to this list (Ekvtime and Giorgi Atonelebi, King David the Builder and his son Demetre I, philosophers – Ioane Petritsi, Ioane Shavteli, Nikoloz Gulaberisdze and others).

From XI-XII centuries, with the formation of Georgian Kingdom, the Secular writing began to develop.

National culture and literature among them has its heyday of fame. For Georgian Literature this was the epoch of Rustaveli (XII-XIII centuries). Rustaveli's "The Knight in the Panther's skin" together with "Iliad", "Shahnameh" and "The Divine Comedy" is the most important crossroad in the history of the Esthetical development of mankind.

"The Knight in the Panther's skin" reflected the clashing of two huge universes in Georgian culture-The West and the East. The West implies the Christian culture and the East-Persian Poetry. Still this poem is the sample of Christian culture, reflecting the Georgian reality, the period of Renaissance and its culture.

After Rustaveli's Epoch Georgian culture began to fall down. It was caused by the Mongolian invaders and their 3 century reign in Georgia. The revival of literature was noted by the emergence of Persian themes in literature (King Teimuraz and his school).

The outstanding figure of the XVIII century Georgia was Sulkhan Saba Orbeliani. He played an important role in the development of Georgian Prose. His main work was the collection of fables "Sibrdzne Sitsruisa". In addition, he has written "The Voyage in Europe", Georgian Dictionary "Sitkvis Kona", collection of fables "Kilila and Damana"(edited).

Georgian Poet Davit Guramishvili continued the literary principles of Sulkhan Saba Orbeliani. He has collected all his poetry in one book called "Davitiani". It is the Biographical work in its character. It is divided in several parts: Historical part ("Kartli's Chiri"), Didactical part (Stavla Mostavleta"), Pastoral part but the main is the religious part. All these sections are united to form one whole.

From XIX century new Epoch began in the history of Georgian Literature. Georgian Poetry has undergone three main periods of evolution: Classicism, Romanticism and Realism. The formation and flourishing of Georgian Romanticism owes much to Grigol Orbeliani's early poetry and reached its pick in Nikoloz Baratashvili's verses.

The period of realism started in the second half of XIX century. Distinguished representatives of the Georgian realism were Ilia Chavchavadze and Akaki Tsereteli. Later Ilia was canonized as "Saint Ilia the Righteous" by the Georgian Orthodox Church.

Vaja Pshavela's Poetry was an entirely new step in the development of Georgian Realism.

Galaktion Tabidze is regarded as the reformator of the Georgian verse at the beginning of XX century. Galaktion Tabidze and Georgian symbolists (Titsian Tabidze, Paolo Iashvili, Valerian Gaprindashvili, Kolau Nadiradze, Giorgi Leonidze and other Georgian Poets- Grigol Robakidze, Ioseb Grishashvili, Aleksandre Abasheli) played a major role in the development of Georgian Poetry. Innovative directions emerged in Georgian Prose as well. Modernism together with national literary traditions defined these innovations.

The Future tendencies of XX century prose were revealed in the works of Niko Lortkipanidze, Mikheil Javakhishvili, Konstantine Gamsaxurdia, Leo Kiacheli and many others.

In the 30s of XX century Modernism and Avangardism were replaced by Socialistic Realism.

In 60-70s the peculiarities of Socialistic Realism began to disappear in the works of Chabua Amirejibi, Otar Chkheidze, Guram Dochanashvili, Revaz Inanishvili, Rezo Cheishvili, Guram Gegeshidze, Ana Kalandadze, Murman Lebanizde, Mukhran Machavariani and others.

Georgian Literature of Post-Soviet period was a post-modernistic literature (Akaki Morchiladze, Zurab Karumidze, Rati Amaglobeli and etc.).

In general, Georgian Literature is an original writing occupying its special place among other literary works in the world. With the help of Georgian literary works foreign readers are led in an entirely new world.