What will the good backgammon player do, if he does not throw  the six in time


I

I am just what is called a lover of the chase. I have a strange liking for sitting at the foot of a tree in a shady, voiceless forest waiting with bated breath for the sighted quarry. There is an untiring  pleasure  in  this  enviable  occupation.  I  agree  with  you  that  hunting  is  a  sin:  every  creature is the work of God's hands, each has an equal desire to live on this: wide earth, but what is  to  be  done?...  Holy  Writ  assures  us,  not  falsely,  that  it  was  man  who  shed  the  first  innocent  blood of man on earth. Man is a shedder of blood, and I am a man. Many a time have I seen a deer  frightened  by  the  hounds,  many  a  time  have  I  seen  it  and  many  a  time  has  my  mind  been  captivated  by  its  free  beauty.  When  it  has  set  its  branching  horns  along  its  back  it  runs  swift,  beautiful and proud, while behind it barks the trained hound. The poor beast outruns the dog and falls into the clutches of man, who in these circumstances is more merciless and less to be trusted than  the  dog.  From  afar  the  keen-eared  sportsman  hears  the  deer's  footfall.  He  hears,  and  his  bloodthirsty  heart  beats  and  beats  with  sheer  impatience.  Now  it  comes  within  gun  range,  between  the  leaves  and  bushes  is  seen  its  sad,  melancholy  head.  The  dog  draws  near.  The  deer  pauses,  then  darts  round  like  an  arrow  into  the  bushes.  Thou  thinkest  that  since  thou  hast  changed  thy  way  thy  beloved  wood  will  give  thee  full  freedom  from  danger,  but  no,  J  whistle.  Then  you  should  see  with  what  sadness  it  stands,  with  what  wondrous  beauty  it  draws  up  its  neck, how in terror and despair it begins to turn its melancholy eyes, to prick up its ears and to sniff  with  widened  nostrils!  It  is  so  pretty  and  so  tender  and  yet  in  its  timidity  there  is  such  an  attractive  pride  that  you  would  think  that  it  had  gathered  all  the  grace  granted  it  by  nature  in  order  by  its  worth  and  beauty  to  soften  the  heart  of  the  hidden  foe!  But  man  is  not  so  tender-hearted as to be deterred by this, when it smelt the smell of man the deer resolved to flee, but the gun  thundered  forth  and  the  deer,  hitherto  living,  free  and  bold  was  stretched  on  that  grass  in  whose lap he had first opened his eyes to greet the world and where he now finally closed them in an eternal farewell. It had been its cradle and at the end it was its grave. You should see how resignedly and quietly the proud free beast died. But its tearful eyes always seem to be asking me this question: My slayer, God's world is large and wide — Why dost thou grudge me, innocent and peaceful, a span's length on God's boundless earth? These words sadden the heart until, the earth  has  dried  up  the  blood  spilt,  and  when  it  begins  to  dry.  then  I  call  to  mind  that  even  we  lords of creatures, the crowns: of things created, we who are made in the image of God, do not suffer each other to have room, — when I remembered that on every foot of ground trodden by man, some of man's blood had dried, then I consoled myself and, justified, I said to myself: "this at  least  is  well,  my  friend,  that  thou  diest  there  where  thou  wast  born.  We  men  sometimes  are  deprived even of that happiness".


II

About  fifteen  versts  down  from  our  village  there  are  some  good  hunting  grounds.  But  why  there?  Everywhere  in  our  blest  land,  where  —  as  the  peasants  say  —  "Christ  God  has  shaken out from his generous bosom", everywhere are good places. Whatever you want is there, beginning with the graceful deer and finishing with the gentlemanly wild boar or the wise bear. Not  to  speak  of  birds.  But  down  from  our  village  were  my  favourite,  hunting  grounds.  Well  I  knew  their  disposition  and  I  had  my  game  marked  down  and  even  seen.  I  used  to  go  away  for  two  or  three  days;  when  night  drew  nigh  I  turned  into  a  little  village  where  I  had  a  worthy  peasant gossip. I would spend the night there and in the morning when the grey dawn appeared I went  down  to  hunt.  I  had  not  been  there  for  two  months,  when  at  last  I  longed  to  go  out.  One  fine,  summer  morning  I  said  my  prayers,  took  my  double-barrelled  gun,  called  my  hound  and went out. At the entrance to my gossip's village where the double hedge began, on the edge of a     cart road stood an old straw shed leaning against a byre. The entrance down into the stable was vaulted like the carpeted covering on a bullock cart. Round about this shed there was no trace of man.  It  had  been,  I  think,  abandoned  to  its  fate  and  forgotten,  like  its  owner  at  his  removal  or  death. Of course, I had frequently gone up and down past this shed, for it stood on the edge of the road, but for as many times as I had passed to and fro I had not once seen a living«creature here.

Perhaps  at  times  a  skinny  backed  peasant's  horse  which  could  go  no  farther  from  feebleness was enticed to the neighbourhood of the shed by the grass dried up with drought. But one  day  as  I  was  passing,  to  my  wonder,  I  saw  a  man  lying  at  the  door  of  the  stable.  That  was  nothing.  In  the  morning  when  I  went  past  I  looked  and  saw  the  man  still  lying  there.  In  the  evening, before twilight had quite yielded to darkness, I came back again I found the man there. It surprized me all the more as there was none but he. I resolved that I would certainly ask my godsire  who  he  was  that  evening.  My  godsire  answered  my  question  thus:  What  can  I  tell  you,  my son? No one here knows who he is. He is some needy peasant having no master; he is sick and came and settled there about a month and a half ago.

—Is he quite alone?

—How do I know? He has not any comforter there at any rate.'

—Then who provides for him?

—The world. On that road movement never ceases. There are always passers-by: it may be a man of God drops him a piece or two of bread. He asks for nothing more than that.

— He does not belong to these parts?

— What do you ask? If he belonged here how could he have so displeased God that his own folk would not have given to him. No, he is not of these parts. Have you spoken to the. man?

— Why not? I have spoken to him.

— Did he say nothing about himself?

— No. But the unhappy man was evidently educated.

— Perhaps you did not ask him about himself?

— How not ask him? Once he said to me: "I, says he, am a forgotten man, why dost thou want to know who I am? Look at me, my brother, and know me", — says he. He spoke no more of himself and I asked no more after that. I think he is hiding himself.

This made me wonder. By nature I am a lover of knowledge and now imagine how these fragmantary words of my godsire moved my heart to learn the man's story. What could he have to conceal? I thought to myself. I resolved that whatever might betide me, I would ask the poor man himself who he was.

One  day,  worn  out  with  wandering  in  vain,  and  empty-handed,  I  was  returning  to  my  gossip's. The sun was still high. It was the time when the cattle are let out of the byre. I saw the wretched man still lying in the same place. My heart could endure no more. I said: whatever may be, I will go and perhaps I shall persuade him to tell me something. I am a little tired too and it is a good way to my godsire's house. If it does no more good it will let the rheumatism out of my wearied knees, I went up and wished him "Victory" (*1)

God  grant  thee  length  of  days-he  replied  with  a  weak  voice,  and  he  came  forward  respectfully  when he saw I was of the princely class.

*  *  *
"Alas! O world, (Fate) what ails thee?
Why dost thou whirl us round?
What (ill) habit afflicts thee?  
All who trust in the weep ceaselessly like me.
Whence and whither earnest thou?
Where and whence uprootest thou?
But God abandons not the man forsaken by thee
(Rustaveli: "The Man in the Panther's Skin").

— He speaks truth who said that may thy troubles be upon me! If the world has turned to face away from me and not given me shelter,   still God's lap is broad!...

When  he  said  this  he  looked  up  to  God.  You  may  imagine  how  these  words  from  "The  Man in the Panther's Skin" astonished me from a beggar wrapped in rags!...

God bless the speech of that man whose words console even to the door of the grave such inconsolable ones! Peace be upon thy mighty soul, immortal Rustaveli.

— What shall I do? said I in my heart. This man cannot have been what he now is. My curiosity was unrestrained now that the man himself had prolonged the conversation with me and given  me  hope  of  learning  something  of  him.  I  wished  to  question  him,  but  did  not  dare:  I  recognized that a long familiar breath had suddenly inspired him with great melancholy. First I preferred that the cloud of melancholy should dissipate, then I would question him as to who he was. At last he turned towards me and for a long time fixed his black eyes upon me.  


(*1) The usual Georgian salutation.



Ilia Chavchavadze
Works
Translated by Marjory and Oliver Wardrops
Ganatleba Publishers
Tbilisi 1987

I

In the morning at six o'clock an unwashed, uncombed yamshtchik (Russian driver) drove up  with  a  post  cart  to  the  door  of  the  hotel  at  Vladikavkaz  where  I  had  alighted  the  evening  before.  It  is  wonderful  how  fair  Russian  artists  make  the  coarse  features  of  these  thicknecked  drivers,  their  slovenly  gait  and  inhuman  and  bestial  manners.  They  are  twice  as  disgusting  in  reality as they are portrayed attractive. But the Russians say "Even the smoke of our own home is sweet and pleasant to us". Of the sweetness of smoke I know nothing  but  certainly  I  can  say  that it is pleasant — very pleasant — especially when it draws tears from the eyes.

When I had packed, that is when I had put my little knapsack in the chaise, I turned to bid farewell to my newly made French acquaintance.

Who  invented  this  vehicle?  He  asked  pointing  to  the  postcart  on  which  the  sleepy  "yamshtchik" was stupidly nodding.

The Russians, I answered.

I  imagine  nobody  is  likely  to  dispute  the  honour  with  them.  I  pity  you  to  be  forced  to  addle your brain and shake up your stomach on a thing like that. What's to be done? If the whole of Russia travels in this: manner why should I complain?

That's why Russia doesn't advance more rapidly. God give you a safe journey. As for me, I tell you frankly I would not risk my life by getting into it. Good-bye! If we should meet again some day I beg you to remember me.

With these words he gave me his hand and grasped it firmly as only a European can.

I entered the postcart.

The "yamshtchik" first looked sulkily round then gathered the reins together, called "gee-up"  to  the  lean  horses  and  raised  his  whip.  The  lean  horses  did  not  budge,  not  even  an  ear  twitched.  "Now,  the  devil,  move  on  won't  you,"  he  shouted  to  the  horses  shaking  the  reins  and  beginning  to  stamp  with  his  feet.  Not  a  bit  of  it,  the  horses  did  not  move  a  step.  My  French  acquaintance was looking out of the window, dying with laughter. What made the silly fellow so merry?

"The whole of Russia travels like that? Ha, ha, ha," he laughed, "they travel like that?"

I  saw  nothing  amusing  in  it  but  I  laughed  too.  The  "yamshtchik"  wrath-fully  turned  his  cow-like  eyes  towards  me  and  began  to  scowl  like  a  beast.  Then  he  bent  his  thick  neck  to  the  horses again and gave them a couple of lashes. The horses, when they found there was nothing else to be done, managed to start from the spot and set off trotting. The tinkling bells began their unpleasing jangle, the carriage began to bump over the stones and I was shaken from side to side.


II

Thus I left Vladikavkaz behind me and set my face towards my native land. I passed over the Terek bridge so that I might not only not drink its waters but not even see it. I was afraid that my  eyes  might  light  upon  some  native.  To  us,  Georgians  there  is  something  unpleasant  and  disagreeable in a dweller on the Terek. For this there is very good cause: first we do not like him because a dweller by Terek is really a Terek dweller, then because... because, secondly he is a Terek  dweller,  thirdly  because...  because...  because...  thirdly  too  he  is  a  dweller  by  the  Terek.  Come now and dispute the validity of such a wise reason to our distressful Georgian people.

That baleful Terek! How two-faced it has been! See how dead it is. Whenever it turns its back to us and its face to Russia, when it gets into the plains and the flat country somehow that daemonic, heroic voice ceases. Is that our mad Terek at Vladikavkaz of which our poet sings:

"Terek rushes, Terek thunders
"The rocks give back its bass"

There it is as spiritless, as dead, as if it dwelt under the rod or had received a high official post. But perchance Terek is so silent there because the echoing rocks are not by its sides, those rocks:

"The clouds lie black upon the rocky heights
"And wrathfully threaten the earth with a deluge".

But  nevertheless,  woe  to  thee,  my  Terek!  Thou  my  foster  brother,  like  some  men,  wherever thou goest thou donnest the hat of the country. No sin is thy thunder, thine awful noise, thy fury and fretting, thine eternal strife with boulders, rock and glen, as if thy large desire could not  be  contained  in  thy  narrow  bed.  Much  is  there  that  is  worthy  of  thought  in  thee,  our  unsubdued Terek, in thy victorious and obstinate course. But here thou art drowned like a slain lion dragged alonge. Thou art pitiable and thou doest sin!

"Oh, fortune in what dost thou consist.
"Why dost thou turn us about, what instinct afflicts thee?" (*1)

It  was  midday  when  we  arrived  at  the  Lars  posthouse.  Up  to  Lars  my  heart  had  felt  no  particular  pleasure  except  that  the  nearer  I  came  to  my  native  land  the  more  familiar  became  nature about me and the more Terek raged and dashed.

I went into the empty room at the post house and as I wished to drink tea I told a broken-legged soldier, who stood as sentinel at the end of the post house, to bring a samovar. While he was getting the samovar ready I lay down on a wooden couch and gave myself up to thought.

For four years I had lived in Russia and had not seen my home. Four years!... What a four years these four years are dost thou know, reader? First of all it is a whole century for him who is far from his native land. Then these four years are life's foundation, life's head waters, the hair-like bridge thrown across between light and darkness. But not for all! Only for him who has gone to Russia to exercise his intelligence, to give his brain and his heart work, to move forward. It is in  these  four  years  that  the  tendril  of  life  knots  itself  into  the  brain  and  heart  of  youth.  This  tendril it is from which may come forth beautiful, bright clusters of grapes and bilberries too. Oh, precious  four  years!  Happy  is  he under whose feet the extended hair  bridge  does  not  give  way.  Happy is he who makes good use of you!


III

When I had left Vladikavkaz and the breeze of my native land began to blow on me my heart began to beat in another way. In the postcart my best thoughts were lost in rattling over the stones. Now, reclining like a grandfather on the couch in a room of a post house you may be well assured that I gave my thoughts all my attention and mind. All that I had left in my beautiful land adorned  like  a  bride,  all  that  I  had  seen,  suffered  and  learnt  crowded  upon  me.  Many  confused  thoughts were represented before my mind's eye, but quicker than lightning one thought changed to another, so that my mind's eye could not rest on one and the same object for one moment — in a  word,  there  was  a  perfect  revolution  going  on  in  my  brain;  thoughts  which  had  taken  a  low  place  came  up  high,  those  which  had  been  high  went  down  and  then  they  quarelled  among  themselves.

This was the state I was in. At last, all my thoughts took their proper in my brain. Among them one stood out more brightly, to this one followed a second to the second a third, so that at last  they  became  an  unbroken  string  of  beads.  How  shall  I  look  on  my  country  and  how  will  it  look  on  me,  thought  I.  What  shall  I  say  to  my  country  that  is  new,  and  what  will  it  say  to  me.

Who  knows:  perhaps  my  country  will  turn  its  back  on  me  as  on  one  transplanted  and  reared  in  another  soil.  Perhaps,  though  it  will  acknowledge  me,  since  in  any  case  my  native  rennet  is  in  me. But what shall I do if my country listens to me and tells me her story, and I, inexpert in her "language, can not understand her tongue, her speech? It may be, though, she will receive me as her son, clasp me to her heart, and eagerly listen to me. But am I indeed able to speak her very speech,  and  in  that  tongue  can  I  bring  consolation  to  the  hopeless,  can  I  wipe  the  tears  of  the  mourner,  and  lighten  the  work  of  the  labourer,  can  I  gather  in  one  those  separate  sparks  which  without doubt animate every man? Am I able for this? Can I express what I feel? I decided that my  country  would  receive  me  and  acknowledge  me  because  I  am  her  blood  and  her  flesh;  I  should understand her words and speech because a son hearkens to his father not only with his ears, but with his heart which understands even the unspoken words; I will make them hearken to my words too, for a parent always listens to the words of his child. But I say all this of words, and what of deeds? If thy country demand deeds of thee what wilt thou do? I asked myself, and again I stopped. I felt that this question made a break in the variegated string of my thoughts.

And what should I really do? I asked myself aloud. You should take some tea, replied the soldier, who at this moment brought in the samovar and placed it on my couch.

Tea!

Wasn't that why you ordered a samovar, replied the stupid orderly, and went out. A few moments  after  this  the  door  opened  again  and  an  officer  presented  himself.  His  face  clearly  showed that he was very intimately acquainted with wine and spirits. It was easy to see that he was not a traveller.

Allow me, he said, to make myself known to you: I am, at your service, a Sub-lieutenant, I am quartered here at Lars in charge of a squad.

I am very glad to make your acquaintance, I replied, rising and offering him my ungloved hand.

Where do you come from?

From St. Petersburg.

Very pleasant! In this desolate desert I have only one pit sure and that is to meet travellers from a civilized land. It is the duty of man, who lives by reason, both to God and to the world, to meet enlightened men to talk to awaken his intelligence. I am very glad to see you. Discourse is the mind's food.

Speaking thus, he again offered to shake hands; a second time I offered him my hand.

Who are you? he asked me.

I am, at your service, an Armenian clerk.

A clerk! he said, and pursed his lips.

Yes, sir.

My new acquaintance when he learnt this immediately put on the airs of a personage of importance: he drew up his shoulders and changed the tenour of his conversation to another key.

Where do you come from? he asked me with surprise and scorn.

From Petersburg.

Hm! sneered the officer, from Petersburg. Very good!... So you have been lucky enough to  see  Petersburg.  Petersburg!...  It's  a  very  fine  city,  he  said,  and  sat  down  comfortably  on  a  bench.  Petersburg!...  Oh,  oh!  It's  a  great  city,  Petersburg.  It  is  a  spacious  city.  It  isn't  like  your  dirty little town. What sort of a town is yours? You can spit from one end of the town to another. But Petersburg... have you seen Petersburg j! It is the heart of Russia. It is true that up to now the  whole  of  Russia  thought  that  Moscow  was  its  heart,  but  I  have  dispelled  that  false,  foolish  idea: I am an author. I beg you to know me. Don't look at me like that. I affirm that Petersburg is the heart of the whole of Russia. Have you seen Izler's garden?

I  listened  to  this  officer  and  thought  to  myself  that  he  must  be  mad,  but  I  could  see  no  sign of it except in his confused conversation.

No, have you seen Izler's garden or not? he asked me again.

How do you prove that Petersburg is the heart of Russia? asked I, giving no answer to his last question.

No,  first  tell  me  have  you  seen  Izler's  garden  or  not?  You  people  are  not  used  to  intelligent  conversation  and  that  is  why  you  jump  from  one  subject  to  another.  You  do  not  understand logical, orderly reasoning. This, of course, comes from your lack of enlightenment. I suppose    that    you    do    not    even    know    the    meaning    of    "civilization",    "association",    "argumentation",  "intelligent",  "cassation"  and  "philology".  But  that  is  nothing  —  that  is  temporary. Even you will be taught. Thank God, many officers and officials come from Russia to enlighten you. No, first tell me, have you seen Izler's garden or not? If you haven't seen that, you haven't seen Petersburg.

I have seen it.

You have seen it. Then you have made a step forward on the road to enlightenment. I am very glad, delighted. Izler's garden! What a garden it is, eh! It is a paradise full of fairies, ah! Do you  know  what      fairies  are?  That  is  a  scientific  word,  perhaps  you  don't  understand.  If  we  translate it into the vulgar tongue that means that the garden is full of merry-eyed damsels. If you like you can take one by the arm, and, if you like, a second. See what civilization can do. Your women  —  if  they  even  see  a  man  —  they  hide.  No,  Petersburg...  is  a  great  city,  a  very  enlightened city and Izler's garden is the crown of civilization, it is such a garden that "phew!"

At these words the scientific officer kissed his finger tips.

I hope that this samovar is standing on the table for you.

Your hope does not deceive you.

I  hope  too,  that  you,  as  a  man  who  has  come  from  a  civilized  country,  will  be  polite  enough to offer me tea.

That hope I will not disappoint.

Of course, you have rum too.

I am sorry I have not.

That doesn't matter. Are you an Armenian or a Georgian?

A Georgian.

I  am  very  glad  that  you  are  a  Georgian.  Although  our  Lermontov  writes  that  "the  timid  Georgians  fled"  yet  even  Georgians  are  better  than  those  blackguards.  You  have  cigarettes  of  course.

I have.

I hope you will give me one.

With great pleasure, take one.

Well then, you pour out the tea and then we can have some scientific conversation. It will be difficult for you, but I will translate scientific words here and there into simple language and so thus make it easy for you.

I  poured  out  the  tea  and  handed  him  a  glass.  When  he  had  drunk  it  he  smoked  his  cigarette and started the conversation.

Your country is not civilized, to use learned language, that is to say in the vulgar tongue it is uncivilized, do you understand.

Very clearly.

There,  I  told  you  I  would  simplify  the  learned  language  so  that  you  would  understand.  Now I will begin from this: your country is not enlightened, that is, it is unenlightened. This tea is from Moscow?

No, I bought it in Stavropol.

It's all the same. Now let us begin as I said before with the fact that your country is not enlightened, which mean? that your country is dark.

Do you understand?

Yes, quite well.

Now  when  we  begin  by  saying  that  your  country  is  not  enlightened  it  is  as  if  we  said  there  is  no  light  in  it.  I  will  explain  this  by  an  exam,  pie:  imagine  a  dark  room  —  have  you  imagined it or not?

I have imagined it.

No, perhaps you have left a window open somewhere, fasten it too.

I have shut it, said I, and smiled.

Very good. When you fasten the window you must let down the blind.

I have drawn it down.

When you have let down the blind the room is darkened, you can see nothing. Suddenly a candle  is  brought  and  the  room  is  illuminated.  That  is  enlightenment.  But  really,  I  tell  you  this  cigarette is not bad. Is it from Petersburg?

No, I bought them in Vladikavkaz.

It's all the same. Now do you understand the meaning of enlightenment?

Very clearly.

Now,  since  I  have  explained  to  you  the  meaning  of  enlightenment,  let  me  ask  you  how  civilization is progressing among you.

I cannot tell you. I have not been home for a long time.

That's nothing: I will learn directly how it is progressing. Have you had any generals, you Georgians?

We might be able to muster about a score.

What do you say? a score. Oh, that is a great thing, said our learned officer solemnly; a score  do  you  say?  This  handful  of  people  and  twenty  generals.  You  must  have  a  great  civilization, sir. You cannot understand — twenty generals! I don't believe it. Perhaps you count as  real  generals  what  we  call  in  learned  parlance  "actual  councillors  of  state",  or  in  simpler  language  "civil  generals  or  still  more  simply  "un-striped  generals"  or  if  we  put  it  still  more  simply "unmoustached generals". This is of course what you have done.

No, by your sun! I swore; by your san! I was speaking of real generals only.

A score of real generals! Glory be to Orthodox Russia! Glory and honour. Wherever she sets  her  foot  she  establishes  civilization!  How  many  years  will  it  be  since  Russia  came  down  here?

About seventy.

Two generals for every two years. It's a great thing, that is a great civilization. And what sort of generals? Real generals. If by the power of God civilization marches like this among you in another seventy years you will have twenty more generals and that will be forty. That's a great thing. I didn't know this. But where was I to find it out? It is not yet three years since I came to this country. To tell you plainly, I have had no time to fix a learned eye on your country, I have been  studying  a  very  deep  subject,  I  have  made  deep research, I have read histories and all my time  has  been  spent  on  this  scientific  work.  But  my  labour  has  not  been  in  vain,  future  generations will remember my name.

What have you done?

What have I done? It is easy to tell you. You see in Russia the serfs have been taken away from their masters. The masters have no servants left. They were left at the mercy of hirelings. Sorrow  came  upon  the  land,  for  these  hirelings  began  to  steal  everything  in  the  house.  I,  like  a  heart-sore  son,  was  grieved  at  the  sorrow  of  my  land.  I  said  to  myself:  the  country  must  be  helped, said I. Thank God, I have helped it too. I have invented a means by which hirelings can no longer steal in the house. Quite a simple occurrence made me discover the cure. My orderly was a very great thief, he didn't even let the sugar in the sugar box alone. I thought and thought; what can I do, thought I, I began to lock the box, but sometimes I used to forget and when I went out of the house the orderly stole my sugar. At last I caught two flies and put them in the sugar-box, shut the lid and left it unlocked. Now you will ask me, why? This was why, — if the orderly wanted  to  steal  sugar  again  he  would  have  to  open  the  box.  When  he  raised  the  lid  the  flies  would fly away. Then when I came in I would open the box and if I saw no flies inside then it was  evident  that  somebody  had  raised  the  lid.  Who  would  do  it  except  my  orderly?  Since  I  invented this my orderly couldn't steal from me. Now every morning when I finish my tea I catch flies in the room, I put them in the box and all night I am calm. I know that no one can steal my sugar.  How  do  you  like  my  idea?  It  is  cheap,  and  a  cure  for  stealing.  It  might  be  used  for  everything  that  we  keep  in  a  box.  I  have  never  told  this  idea  of  mine  to  anybody  before,  but  I  love  your  land  so  much  that  I  tell  you  and  I  beg  you  to  make  it  known  to  your  unenlightened  masters. There is one thing I have not found a way to stop, the stealing of vodka. I did try to put flies  in  the  vodka  bottle,  but  the  cursed  things  drowned  themselves  in  it  —  they  know  what  is  good for them. But I shall soon think of a cure for that. Well, how does my cunning please you? The French invent devilish sorts of things like that, but to buy their machines is dear, while my invention doesn't cost a farthing. What expense is there in catching two flies and putting them in a box? It is nothing, but now see what maybe the result of my invention: when it spreads perhaps there will begin to be a trade in flies. There will thus be a new industry in the land; some fine day you  will  go  into  your  town  and  you  will  find  a  fly  shop.  That's  not  bad.  How  many  hungry  mouths  may  be  filled  by  the  help  of  flies!  What  are  flies  at  present?  Nothing.  Of  what  use  are  they? None at all. Now you see of what great significance the labour and work of a learned wise man is to the land. I did come here although many entreated me not to do so. I said to myself: If God has bestowed some talent on me I should use it for my people, said I, but said I, these newly annexed  countries  need  more  enlightenment;  enlightened  men  are  needed.  But  wait  a  little  and  see  what  will  happen.  I,  as  I  told  you  already,  have  invented  one  thing,  now  others  may  invent  other  things,  and  it  may  happen  that  there  will  come  a  man  who  will  make  an  Izler's  garden  in  your  town;  all  things  are  possible  to  the  educated  man.  In  that  case  all  the  civilization  of  Petersburg  would  be  brought  here.  Then  some  fine  day  you  will  see  how  there  will  be  a  promenade in your Izler's garden, your women will begin to walk boldly, you could say "Sheni Chirime" (*2) to one or another and they will not say a word. Then the people will see their paradise, as the learned say, that is to put it simply but what shall I say, paradise is just paradise. Do you understand?


IV

That evening I came up to Stepantsminda. It was a beautiful evening so I decided to stay the night that my eyes might open on the lovely view.

Oh Georgia !

"Where is there another Georgia!
In what corner of the world?"

I  went  out  from  my  room  and  looked  over  at  Mqinvari,  which  they  call  Mount  Kazbek.  There  is  something  noble  about  Mqinvari.  Truly  can  it  say:  the  heavens  are  my  head-dress  and  the earth my slippers. It rose in the azure sky, white and serene. Not a cloud, even of the size of a man's  hand,  dimmed  its  lofty  brow,  its  head  silvered  with  frost.  One  solitary  star  of  great  brilliance shone steadily,  as  if  marvelling  at  Mqinvari's  noble mien. Mqinvari! Great is it, calm and peaceful, but it is cold and white. Its appearance makes me wonder but doesn't move me, it chills me and does not warm me — in a word it is Mqinvari /frozen/.

Mqinvari with all its grandeur is to be admired but not to be loved. And what do I want with  its  greatness.  The  world's  hum,  the  world's  whirlwind  and  breezes,  the  world's  ill  or  weal  makes  not  even  a  nerve  in  his  lofty  brow  twitch.  Although  his  base  stands  on  mother  earth  his  head rests: in heaven; it is isolated; inaccessible. I do not like such height nor such isolation nor such  inaccessibility  .Thank  God  for  the  desperate,  mad,  furious,  obstinate,  disobedient  muddy  Terek!  Leaping  from  the  black  rock's  heart  he  goes  roaring  and  shouting  on  his  way.  I  love  Terek's  noisy  murmur,  its  hurried  struggle,  grumbling  and  lamentation.  Terek  is  the  image  of  human awakened life, it is a face mobile and worth knowing; in its muddy waters can be found the lye to wash a whole world's woe. Mqinvari is the noble image of eternity and death: cold as eternity,  silent  as  death.  No,  I  do  not  love  Mqinvari  —  all  the  more  because  it  is  inaccessibly  high. The foundation of the earth's happiness is placed at the base, all buildings are reared from the bottom, no building is begun from the top. Therefore I, a child of this earth, am better pleased by Terek and loveit more. No, I do not love Mqinvari; its coldness stings me, its whiteness ages me!  It  is  high,  you  say.  What  have  Ito  do  withits  height  since  I  cannot  reach  up  to  it  and  it  cannot reach down to me. No I do not love Mqinvari. Mqinvari reminds me of the great Goethe. Terek  of  the  stormy  and  indomitable  Byron.  Happy  Terek!  Thy  charm  lies  in  thy  restlessness.  Stand  still  but  a  little  while  and  dost  thou  not  turn  into  a  stinking:  pool  and  does  not  this  fearsome roar of thine change to the croaking of frogs! It is movement and only movement, my Terek, which gives to the world its might and life.


V

Night  had  fallen.  Gazing  on  Mqinvari  and  the  Terek,  occupied  with  various  thoughts,  time  had  stolen  on  so  imperceptibly  that  I  scarcely  noticed  how  the  sun  had  bidden  farewell  to  the earth which he had warmed and was hidden by the mountains. It was night, nothing could be seen, the world's din ceased, the earth was silent.

It was night, but I know not what I should have done had I not had hope that dawn was coming  again.  Would  life  have  been  worth  living?...  O,  nature  I  love  thy  order  by  whose  aidevery night dawns into day.

It  was  night  but  still  I  stay  outside  the  posthouse  and  obstinately  I  make  my  keen  mind  follow  the  sough  of  Terek's  desperate  rush.  All  was  still,  but  not  thou,  O  Terek!  I  assure  you  I  hear  in  this  voiceless  world  Terek's  complaint  not  to  be  hushed.  In  human  life  there  are  such  moments of solitude when Nature reveals thee. to thyself and at the same time reveals herself to thee.  Therefore,  canst  thou  say  that  even  in  solitude  thou  art  nowhere  alone.  Oh,  biped  who  callest  thyself  human.  This  night  I  feel  that  there  is  as  it  were  a  secret  bond  —  a  concord  —  between  my  thoughts  and  Terek's  moan.  My  heart  is  moved  and  my  arm  trembles.  Why?  Wemust tarry for an answer.

It  is  dark,  man's  footfall  is  hushed,  man's  noisy  pomp  has  ceased,  no  more  is  heard  the  moan of those disquieted by weariness and longing, earth's pain slumbers, no being save myself is to be seen. Alas! how empty were this full earth without man!... No, take away this dark and peaceful  night  with  its  slumber  and  its  dreams  and  give  me  light  and  restless  day  with  its  sufferings, its tortures, its struggles and its lamentations. Dark night, I hate thee. Hadst thou not been  created  upon  earth  me  thinks  half  man's  ills  had  not  existed.  At  first  by  thy  coming  thou  struckest horror into the mind of man and frightened him.

Since  then,  terrified,  he  could  not  find  his  way  —  and  lo!  man  struggles  and  even  till  today one in a thousand cannot accustom his once frightened mind to its terror. Oh, dark night! I hate thee. In the shelter who knows how many evil foes of mankind are lurking even now? Who knows how many smiths and tyrants are forging the chains to fix man's fate under this dark veil which  covers  my  sight?  Thou  art  the  abettor  of  that  craft  called  sorcery,  which  to  man's  terror-stricken  mind  makes  woe  seem  joy;  thou  art  the  hour  and  time  of  the  witches'  feast  when  the  toasts of darkness are heard. Evil one, avaunt, O day of light, approach!...


VI

At  the  posthouse  I  learnt  that  there  was  frequently  much  delay  in  travelling  by  post  through the mountains, owing to the lack of horses at the stations. I was advised to hire a horse as far as Phasanaur and to cross on horseback. This advice suited me well, I gave myself up to sleep, intending to hire a saddle horse on the morrow and to cross the mountains thus.

The  day  broke.  How  beautiful  art  thou,  morning  dawn!  How  beautiful  art  thou,  dew  washed  earth!  It  seems  to  me  that  on  this  morning  all  earth's  pains  should  be  alleviated,  but  Terek still roars and struggles. The earth's pain it seems is not to be calmed.

The  day  broke  and  the  world  began  to  speak  with  human  voices.  The  day  began  its  restless bustle. An awakened man is good!... But still better is that man who in sleeping sleepeth not, his heart afire for the misery of the land. My lovely land, be there such in thee? I will search, and if I find any I will do him reverence.

I went outside the station and met a glensman. I hired a horse from him on condition that he should accompany me on horseback. Not only did I not repent but I was very glad that I had arranged  matters  thus.  My  glensman  turned  out  to  be  very  useful.  He  was  a  grizzled?  elderly  man. In the end it appeared that he was an interested observer of that little land which fate had stretched round him and which was appointed to vary his colourless life.

We mounted our horses and set forth from Step'antsminda. I gave a last look at Mqinvari. He stared down in a lordly way from his height. Hedisturbed my morning peace, of mind. Again my  heart  began  to  beat  and  my  arm  to  shake.  With  perfect  hatred  I  turned  my  eyes  from  Mqinvari's greatness and with more respect I took my leave of Terek madly rushing at his feet. He, as if he ... sat on a little mountain horse which trotted almost the whole way with a comical "wolf's "trot. My glensman's longhaired fur hat slipped over his eyes, and so easily he sat astride his wide saddle, so comfortably and untroubled he suited his valiant form to the horse's trot, so peacefully and with such enjoyment he smoked his "chibukh", that you would have thought — it would be hard indeed to find another man in such fettle on the face of the earth.

What is your name, brother, asked I.

They call me G'unia of the reeds, he answered.

Where do you come from?

Where? From Gaibotani, here in the mountains on Terek's banks.

— Are you Osset or Georgian?

— Why will I be Osset? I am Georgian, a glensman.

— Your home is in a good place.

— It's not so bad: it suits our poverty.

— Water like this and air are happiness.

— Hm! laughed the glensman.

— What are you laughing at?

— I laugh at the ridiculous. An empty stomach cannot be filled wi'these.

— You should have a good harvest here.

— What for no? The place is not bad; we get a pickle, each man will have less than a two weeks harvest. We have not much room.

— This big road will give you help.

—  What  difference  does  the  road  make!  It's  only  of  use  to  him  who  is  saved  work  by  carrying things to sell.

— Then you do not hire yourself out?

— Why not? Of course I do.

— Then you get money from hire.

—  I  get  it.  It  doesn't  stay  in  my  pocket,  though;  a  glensman  is  the  portion  of  the  Armenian. Food and drink are not in the house; the money goes to the dukan. (*3)

— Then it must be better in the plains; there the people have more to eat.

—  Who  knows?  There  too  there  are  ills.  The  climate  is  unhealthy.  The  folk  thereabouts  have  no  colour,  they  are  not  strong.  Here  we  are  healthy.  The  Maker  of  the  round  sky  has  decreed it; there Satiety, here health.

— Which is better, the fat land or the healthy?

— Both are alike. No place is bad.

— If you were made to choose one of them?

— One? To choose! I prefer these broken rocks. It is healthy. Adam's son is but grass, he has  wants,  he  satisfies  them,  why  should  he  suffer  pain?  (At  this  moment  my  glensman's  rope  stirrup  suddenly  gave  way,  he  could  not  balance  himself  and  slipped  to  the  side  of  the  horse.  Then he recovered himself, leapt from his horse and began to mend the stirrup).

— A caparisoned horse is a necessary evil, the glensman called out with a smile; blessed is the barebacked horse; you have only to... and jump on.

I did not wait for the glensman but went on.


VII

— Tell me, by your troth, said I to the glensman when he caught me up: What monastery is that opposite Step'anstminda?

— Beyond the Terek?

— Yes.

—  May  God  be  merciful  to  you  while  living  and  pardon  you  when  dead!  that  is  the  church of the Holy Trinity, the hiding place of treasure in former days, the seat of justice.

— How the hiding place of treasure, the seat of justice?

— The Georgian King's treasure was hidden here from foes, many a time has the treasury been brought here from Mtzkhet to be concealed.

— How is it the seat of, justice?

—  The  seat  of  justice?  Here  there  is  a  cell,  where  justice  was  dispensed  by  judges.  Whenever any serious affair arose in the glens it was judged there.

— Canst thou not tell me what this justice was like and what it was about generally?

— Why not tell thee? What I know I will relate to thee. When there took place among the people a great pursuit, any important affair, a big election, the people betook themselves thither, chose judges from among the wise old men, men famed for their wisdom. They set them up in that  cell  to  judge.  Whatever  these  mediators  then,  in  the  name  of  the  Trinity,  having  asked  for  grace from God, speak and decide, none breaks, none infringes.

— Hast thou been present at such a tribunal?

— How should I have been present? I am telling thee tales of other days.

— Why is it no longer as it was?

— Nowadays? My glensman was sunk in thought and gave no answer. After a short, pause he asked me:

— What countryman art thou?

— I am a Georgian, couldst thou not recognize me?

— How should I recognize thee? Thy garb is not of the Georgians; thou art dressed like a Russian.

— Can a man's Georgianness only be recognized from his clothes?

— To the eyes he is known by his clothes.

— And his tongue and speech?

— Many speak the Georgian tongue: Armenians, Ossetians, Tatars, and other people.

— And do few wear the Georgian clothes?

— The look of a Georgian's garments is quite different. In Russia a Georgian becomes a foreigner.

— A Georgian should be a Georgian at heart; or what is the use of clothes.

— Thou  art  right.  But  who  can  see  into  the  heart?  The  heart  is  inside,  invisible,  the  clothes are outside, visible.

— Although I am dressed like a Russian, believe me, I am a Georgian in heart.

— May be.

I do not know whether my glensman believed me or not. But after this a conversation of the  following  sort  took  place:  Thou  hast  not  replied  to  my  former  question,  I  began  again:  I  asked thee why they no longer judge in the cell of Trinity.

Now?...  Where  is  our  nationality?  We  are  under  Russia.  Now  everything  is  destroyed,  everything is changed. At the foot of Sameba (Trinity) is the village of Gergeti. The men of the village  were  sworn  sentinels  of  the  Church  by  the  Kings.  In  return  the  Kings  gave  the  whole  village  franchise  and  gave  them  a  charter  to  be  handed  down  from  son  to  son.  In  days  of  old  every night three men were sent from Gergeti to watch. The men of Gergeti still hold themselves responsible  for  theguarding  of  the  church,  but  the  Russians  have  taken  away  their  franchise.  Russia pays no heed to the King's charter. Gergeti now pays taxes like the rest. The old order has passed away, the justice, asked from God's grace, in Trinity is no more.

— Then the former state and time were better?

— Why not?

— How were they better?

— In those days for evil or for good we belonged to ourselves, therefore, it was better. In those days the people were patriotic, their hearts were full of courage, men were men and women women.

In those days! We leaned one on the other, we asked aid one of the other. We cared for the widow and orphan, we kept in their places the devil inside and the wicked outside, we did not trouble the calm of God and the lords judges, we hid each other from bold foes, we cared for the fallen, we comforted those who wept; and thus there was human pity and unity. Now the people are spoilt, they have fallen into adultery, avarice and greed overcome us, unity is no more, and enmity  and  rending  to  pieces  have  increased.  Now  who  listens  to  the  plaint  of  the  widow  and  orphan, who makes the weeper smile, who raises the fallen? Nowadays there are no men and if there  are  in  face  and  in  heart  they  are  spiritless.  The  people  are  down  trodden,  torn  to  shreds,  courageless. The glory of the Georgians is passed and their supremacy. Then was our day. Our land  is  no  more,  it  has  perished,  what  now  remains  to  us?  Food  and  drink  must  be  bought  at  a  price, wood must be paid for, the road must be paid for, prayers and blessings must be paid for justice must be paid for, what is left for the poor glensman? ...

— Is there not peace now?

—  What  good  can  an  empty  peace  do  an  empty  stomach.  Rust  eats  an  unused  dagger,  frogs,  worms,  and  reptiles  multiply  in  stragnant  water.  Are  there  trouts  in  the  rushing,  restless  Terek? What is peace for a living man? What are enemies if a people is free? Peace brings us to earth.

—  But  enemies  trod  you  down,  laid  you  waste,  and  distressed  your  wives  and  children  frequently.

—  Now  these  Armenians  who  have  come  distress  us  more,  waste  our  houses  more.  In  former  days  we  could  at  least  play  with  our  foes  with  shield  and  buckler,  we  could  defend  ourselves, but what can be done with the Armenian, there is no defending oneself against him, he is not to be played with. In former days too, in the fight with foes, we gained glory, in showing our superiority, but what glory can a man get from the Armenians. In other days, thou art right, there were foes, but there were also great rewards for faithful men: they received land, their taxes were  waived.  There  on  Terek's  banks  stands  a  fortress  not  built  with  hands.  That  fort  is  well  known as Arshi's fort.

— How is it not built with hands?

— It is built by God, impregnable, not to be broken.

— Then what wouldst thou say?

— In other days Kakhetian army attacked it, fought, and took it. The glen thought to get help from the terrified lord. He could give them none. A great number of people were slain, The Kakhetians  massacred  man  glensmen,  they  came  into  the  fort,  pulled  down  the  standard.  There  was  an  old  glensman  there,  a  man  famed  for  his  wisdom.  He  had  a  daughter,  not  betrothed,  unseen  of  the  sun.  This  glensman  decided  to  make  the  Kakhetian  soldiers  drunk.  He  brought wine  and  sent  it  into  the  fortress.  H  also  sent  his  daughter,  unseen  of  the  sun,  to  the  drunken  feast.  The  Kakhetians,  thirsty  of  wine,  admirers  of  fair  women,  became  as  swine,  and  were  completely drunk. The maid discovered the keys of the fortress and let the glensmen know of the swinish  state  of  the  Kakhetian  soldiers  glensmen  came  and  entered  the  Castle  unperceived,  raised cries and m sacred all the drunken Kakhetians. Again the fortress fell into the hands of the glensmen.  The  Eristav  of  Aragva  heard  of  this.  He  gave  the  castle  as  a  reward  to  the  maid's  father, he also gave him a charter...

— What sort of bravery was there in that?

— Why not? That is cunning; where force cannot prevail, there cunning persuades.

— What canst thou say to this massacre of Kakhetians?

Now all Georgians are brothers. I am not speaking of Kakhetians in enmity. This I want thee to understand, that formerly if we gave our lives in service there were rewards, there were great gifts; we found our livelihood in glory and in deeds of heroism, a man did not live in vain Now we have to find our livelihood in lying, immorality, perjury, and i betraying one another.


VIII

Whether my glensman spoke truth or no I will not now enquire. And what business is it of mine? I merely mention in passing what I as a traveller: heard from him.

My  one  endeavour  in  this  has  been  to  give  to  his  thoughts  their  own  form  and  to  his  words his accent. If I have succeeded in this I have fu filled my intention.

My glensman told me much more, but for various reasons it would not do to write down all  his  conversation...  I  will  only  say  that  in  his  own  words  he  made  me  a  sharer  in  his  heart's  woe.

I  understood,  my  glensman,  how  thou  art  pierced  with  lancets.  "We  belonged  to  ourselves", saidst thou, and I heard. But as I heard a sudden pain shot from my brain to my heart, there  in  my  heart,  it  dug  itself  a  grave  and  was  buried.  How  long  will  this  pain  remain  in  my  heart, how long Mow long, oh, how long?... My beloved land answer me this!...


(*1) Rustavel: "The Man in the Panther's Skin"

(*2) An expletive which no Georgian gentleman uses to a lady though men use it among themselves

(*3) Village shop



Ilia Chavchavadze
Works
Translated by Marjory and Oliver Wardrops
Ganatleba Publishers
Tbilisi 1987

I was born on October 27 (o. s.) 1837 in the village of Kwareli (*1), in the district of Telavi, in the province of Tiflis in the region comprising also the district of Signakh, called Cakheti. My father (Grigol) was a man of some education, he served as an officer in the Nizhegorod dragoons and had a good knowledge of the Russian language.

My mother was remarkable for her intimate acquaintance with the Georgian literature of her day, she knew almost by heart nearly all the poetry and all the ancient tales and stories then to be found in manuscript and print. She loved to read in the evenings to us her children stories and tales, and after reading would tell them over again in her own words and in the next evening whoever  of  us  repeated  best  what  he  had  heard  the  night  before  was  rewarded  by  her  praise,  which we greatly prized.

I  began  my  studies  by  learning  my  native  Georgian  language  with  the  deacon  of  the  parish at the age of eight. This deacon was distinguished for his knowledge of Georgian; he was famous  as  a  good  reader  of  the  holy  books  and  was  especially  gifted  with  the  fascination  of  a  splendid narrator. His stories, suited to the childish comprehension in form and substance, dealt with separate episodes of the religious, but more particularly the civic history of our country and consisted of narrations of various heroic exploits in defence of the faith and fatherland. Many of these  tales  left  an  impression  on  my  memory  and  served  me  many  years  afterwards  as  subjects  for  a  poem,  "Dimitri  the  Self-sacrificing"  and  a  short  Christmas  story.  Some  passages  in  my  Story of a Beggar exhibitmarks of this influence. I learned my lessons at the deacon's with the peasant children of my native village, of whom there were only five or six as far as I recollect. We  all  lived  at  home  and  only  came  from  morning  till  midday.  So  far  as  I  remember  we  only  spent an hour a day learning to read and write, and all the rest of the time till noon was spent in games  under  the  supervision  and  guidance  of  the  deacon,  and  especially,  in  listening  to  his  alluring stories.

In  my  eleventh  year  my  father  took  me  to  Tiflis  and  sent  me  to  Raevski  and  Hacke's  boarding-school,  then  the  best  of  all  the  private  schools  in  Tiflis.  I  was  fifteen  when  from  this  Boarding-school I proceeded to the fourth class in the Tiflis Grammar School, still remaining as a boarder in the former house, which was now managed by Hacke alone.

Hacke  was  a  German,  a  thoroughly  educated  man  in  every  way.  He  had  been  engaged  from Germany by Neidhart, who was at that time commander of the detached Caucasian Corps, for  the  education  of  his  children,  and  after  the  termination  of  his  engagement  with  Neidhart  he  opened a boarding school with Raevski who had been previously engaged in educational work in Tiflis. Hacke, though, strict and exacting, was so paternally attentive to his pupils, so painstaking and anxious for their moral and intellectual development, that he devoted to then nearly all, his time  after  school  hours,  conversing  with  them,  diverting      them  with  music,  giving  them  improvised concerts on the pianoforte, which he played to perfection.

Having  gone  through  the  eighth  class  of  the  Grammar  School  and  not  passed  the  final  examination in 1857 I entered the University of St. Petersburg as a student of the then-existing cameral  section  of  the  Faculty  of  Jurisprudence,  and  in  1861,  when  I  was  in  my  fourth  year  of  residence, I left the University in consequence of the so-called "Student Affair" (political) of that period.

In 1863 I founded the journal "Sakarthvelos Moambe" (Georgia's Messenger) which only lasted a year. In the same year 1863 I married Princess Olga Guramishvili.

At the beginning of 1864, when the reform for the liberation of the peasants in the district of the Viceroy of the Caucasus was planned, I was sent to act in the province of Kutais as official private  Secretary  to  the  Governor  General  of  Kutais,  in  order  to  determine  the  nature  of  the mutual relations between landlords and peasants arising from the servile dependence of the latter on the former.

In  November  of  the  same  year,  1864,  the  liberation  of  the  peasants  from  servile  dependence had already been effected in the province of Tiflis and I was appointed Arbitrator of the Peace in the Dushet district of the province of Tiflis and in that office I remained down to the year  1868,  when  upon  the  introduction  of  the  new  judicial  organization  in  the  Caucasus  I  was  given  the  office  of  Justice  of  the  Peace  in  the  same  district  of  Dushet.  In  this  latter  office  I  remained  till  1874.1  think  it  may  not  be  superfluous  to  remark  here  that  the  nobility  of  the  province  of  Tiflis,  having  received  on  the  abolition  of  servile  dependence  an  imperial  grant  for  the personal liberation of the peasants, a part of this grant was allotted for the establishment of a credit  institution,  capable  of  meeting  the  need  for  a  regularly  organized  system  of  credit,  and  especially  with  the  proviso  that  its  profits  should  be  exclusively  devoted  to  the  education  and  instruction of the children of the nobility of the province of Tiflis. After much hesitation in this search for a suitable form of credit institution, the nobility in 1874, on my advice, decided upon the  establishment  of  a  Land  Bank  and  entrusted  a  special  Committee,  of  which  I  was  elected  a  member, to draw up the statute .The statute formulated by the committee in accordance with the models supplied by the Government for their guidance and passed in the same year 1874 by the nobility  differs  from  all  other  statutes  of  land  banks  in  this  noteworthy  peculiarity,  that  all  the  profits of the Bank, excluding the obligatory deductions on account of sundry capital sums, are applied  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  common  needs  not  only  of  the  landowning  nobility  but  of  the  agricultural  population  of  the  province  of  Tiflis.  Thus,  the  Land  Bank  of  the  Tiflis  Nobility  is  probably  the  only  agrarian  credit  institution  in  all  the  Russian  Empire  whose  statute  entirely  eliminates the personal interest of gain for the sake of attaining aims of a social character.

In  the  same  year  1874  the  nobility  commissioned  me  to  proceed  to  St.  Petersburg  and  procure the confirmation of the statute they had passed and in consequence of this I retired from the Government Service.

The statute with the above mentioned peculiarity was confirmed by Government in 1875, From  that  year  the  Bank  began  its  operations  and  from  a  founder's  capital  of.  only  240  000  roubles ( £ 24 000) it has now (1902) reached such a position that it yields a yearly profit of over 360  000  roubles  (£  36  000),  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  all  the  founder's  capital  subscribed  by  noblemen, has already been paid back to the nobility. From the day of the opening of the Bank down to the present time I have been President of the Board of the Bank. This office is elective and tenable for a term of three years.(*2)

In  1877  I  founded  a  weekly  Georgian  newspaper  "Iveria",  which  afterwards  became  a  monthly magazine, and from 1885 a daily political and literary paper. In 1902 I handed over the paper to another person who now edits it.

Of my works in translations by various hands there are in Russian only some short verses and  one  poem  "The  Hermit"  in  Mr.  Tkhorzewsky's  version.  The  Russian  translations  of  my  verses  are  partly  comprised  in  a  separate  collection  published  in  Tiflis,  and  partly  appeared  in  "Russkaya Mysl", "Zhivopisnoe Obozrenie" "Viestnik Evropy" and I forget where else.

My  poem  "The  Hermit"  was  translated  into  English  (verse)  by  Miss  Marjory  Wardrop  and  also  into  French  (prose).German  translations  of  some  of  my  short  pieces  in  verse  were  put  into the collection first published at Leipzig in 1886 by Arthur Leist under the title "Georgesche Dichter"  and  re-issued  at  Dresden  in  1900.  Critical  notices  duly  appeared  in  the  local  Russian  newspapers "Kavkaz" and "Novoe Obozrenie", and as well as I can recollect, in the metropolitan journals "Russkaya Mysl" and "Zhivopisnoe Obozrenie", also in another Moscow periodical the name of which, to my regret I have forgotten.

Abroad,    criticisms    were    inserted    in    some    German    periodicals    including,    the    "Litterarisches Echo" and in the "Academy" and the Italian review "Nuova Antologia" No. VI of 1900 Notices with reference to my public and literary  work  are  found  in  "Le Caucase Illustre", Tiflis 1902.

In  1877  I  was  elected  Vice  President  of  the  Imperial  Agricultural  Society  and  held  that  office for some time, and I was elected President of the Georgian Dramatic Society from 1881 to 1884.  I  am  President  of  the  Society  for  the  Propagation of Literacy among the Georgians since 1886, I was member of the committe of the Society of the Nobility of the province of Tiflis for the  Assistance  of  Necessitous  Scholars.  I  have  taken  part,  whether  by  invitation  or  election,  in  almost all committees charged with the ...

My  literary  labours  began  in  1857  with  the  printing  in  the  magazine  "Tziscari"  (The  Dawn)  of  short  verses,  then  my  works  appeared  in  the  newspaper  "Droeba"  (Time),  "Crebuli"  (the  Garner),  in  "Sakartvelos  Moambe"  (Georgian  Messenger)  and  "Iveria"  both  of  which  I  founded) and partly in the now-existing magazine "Moambe".

In  addition  to  shorter  verses,  I  have  written  some  poems:  "Episodes  from  the  Life  of  a  Brigand",  "The  Vision",  "Dimitri  the  Self  Sacrificing';  "The  Hermit"  and  a  dramatic  sketch  "Mother and Son". Of my tales I may mention: 1) "Katzia Adamiani?!" (Is that a man?!) printed in  1863  in  "Georgia's  Messenger"  and  afterwards  published  in  Petersburg  by  the  Society  of  Georgian students, 2) "The Story of a Beggar" printed in the same journal and in the same year, which also appeared as a separate work; 3) Scenes from the early days "of the emancipation of the peasants", printed in 1865 in "Crebuli" and afterwards published separately. 4) "Letters of a Traveller" printed in 1864, also in "Crebuli", 5) "The Widow of the House of Otar" 1888; 6) "A Strange story" printed in "Moambe", 7) "A Christmas Story" 8) "The Four Gibbets" in "Iveria".

I translated Pushkin's "Propheth" Lermontov's "Prophet", "Hadji Abrek" and "Mary" and Turgeniev's  "Verses  in  Prose"  and  some  verses  of  Heine  and  Goethe.  I  also  translated,  in  collaboration  with  Prince  Ivane  Machabeli,  Shakespeare's  "King  Lear".  I  took  part  in  the  restoration  of  the  original  text  of  the  famous  Georgian  poem  "The  Man  in  the  Panther's  Skin",  also  in  editing:  a)  the  poems  of  Prince  Alexandre  Chavchavadze,  b)  the  poems  of  Vakhtang  Orbeliani", for which I wrote a preface, c) The ancient Georgian story of "Vis and Ramin".

In  addition  to  these  literary  works  I  have  written  many  short  articles  of  political  journalistic,  critical  and  polemical  character,  also  articles  on  educational  questions.  Among  the  most bulky of the journalistic publications may be mentioned "The Khizan Question", "Life and Law", "Concerning Brigandage in Transcaucasia". Of the critical and polemical articles may be mentioned two which were printed as feuilletons in "Iveria": "And You Call that History?!" (on Rustaveli) and "Armenian Savants and Outcrying Stones" the last of these recently appeared in a ussian translation and caused much ado in the local Armenian press.

Of  the  edition  of  my  complete  collected  works  undertaken  by  the  local  Georgian  Publishing Society, so far 4 volumes have appeared out of the proposed 10 or 12 volumes. The volumes already published include verses, tales, stories and dramatic sketches.


(*1) The translator's style and spelling of Georgian and Russian names are preserved intact.

(*2) By  1907  a  private  Grammar  school  was  supported  from  the  profits  of  the  Bank,  with  a  boarding  -  house  for  children of the poorest among the nobility and a day school for children of all classes; also an agricultural school for children of all classes.


Ilia Chavchavadze - Works (Translated by Marjory and Oliver Wardrops)

by
Professor Tengiz Simashvili
Iakob Gogebashvili Telavi State University, Georgia
Email: tengizsimashvili(at)yahoo.com

Electronic Research Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities
ISSN: 2706 – 8242 www.eresearchjournal.com
Vol 2: Issue III
Jul - Sep 2020


Abstract

The archives of Georgia contain many interesting documents about Joseph Stalin. One of the most significant documents among them is a letter on September 5, 1907. It is mention, that somebody with last name Nizharadze was the suspect in Ilia Chavchavadze’s assassination. It is quite possible that this surname contains extremely important information to the study of Joseph Jughashvili (Stalin)’s biography. The point is that in 1908, Joseph Jughashvili (Stalin) was arrested in Baku with a false passport under the name of Gaioz Nizharadze. According to the archival materials which I have discovered so far, it becomes evident that the false passport under the name of Nizharadze was issued on April 7, 1906. On the one hand, such a coincidence of surnames directly indicates Joseph Jughashvili (Stalin)’s involvement in Ilia Chavchavadze’s assassination. However, on the other hand, while working on the archival documents in Georgia regarding Ilia Chavchavadze’s assassins: Iliko Imerlishvili, Ivane Inashvili, Pavle Fshavlishvili,
and Gigila Berbichashvili, I could not find any information about Joseph Jughashvili’s or “Nizharadze’s” involvement in Chavchavadze’s murder. Although the information and documents, examined in this article, are to some extent
contradictory, the analysis of them makes it evident that Joseph Jughashvili’s Biography is not sufficiently studied.

Keywords: The Georgian achieves, Murder of Ilia Chavchavadze, Joseph Stalin, Biography, Terrorists, Historiography


Introduction:

There are quite interesting materials about Joseph Jughashvili (Stalin) in archival materials of the murder of Ilia Chavchavadze. Ilia Chavchavadze was the great Georgian writer, sometimes called “Father of Nation”. On August 30, 1907, the killers awaited Ilia Chavchavadze’s phaeton on the road near Tsitsamuri and Saguramo villages, near Tbilisi capital of modern Georgia. Ilia Chavchavadze and his servant were killed and Ilia’s wife was brutally beaten.

According to archival and other historical documents, four or five people participated in the assassination of Ilia Chavchavadze. Today we know that the killers were Ivane Inashvili, Pavle Pshavlishvili, Gigla Berbichashvili, and “Imereli,” who is referred to as “One Imereli” in some documents, and “Imereli” in others. In one document he is called “the leader of Ilia Chavchavadze’s killers’ gang”. According to acceptable documents, the fourth killer under nickname “Imereli”, was Iliko Imerlishvili. He was an active member of the Bolshevik party in Georgia.

According to the memories of revolutionaries, Joseph Jughashvili (Stalin) participated in the meetings of “Red Detachments” where Gigla Berbichashvili and Iliko Imerlishvili were, and he had with them close relations. There is a question, who was the fifth member of the Ilia Chavchavadze killer group? I try to give the answer in my research.


Methodology:

For analyzing information archival documents I guided with the following methods and principles of modern scientific research:

i. Comparative Method – comparing historical objects with time, analyzing and revealing similarities and differences;

ii. System Method – making a generalized model by using materials found out during the process of investigation, which will be the reflection of the real situation taking, place in social interrelations and upheavals typical to historical process, or present-day situations;

iii. Retrospective Method – investigating past gradually, in order to find out genuine reasons for occurred historical events;

iv. Logical Method – making objective analysis about the situations in order to shed light on the historical development stages and define boundaries for separate historical ones;

v. Chronological-Problematic Method – studying problems of chronological occurrences thoroughly;

vi. Historical-Comparative Method – investigating the past from present including the current situation by using comparative analysis of historical events and processes.


Content:

I found out quite interesting materials about Joseph Jughashvili (Stalin) in “Ilia Chavchavadze’s (*1) Murder Investigation Case of Tbilisi Criminal Investigation Department” kept in the Central Historical Archive of Georgia.

A few days after Ilia Chavchavadze’s murder, an operating officer of the Tbilisi Criminal Investigation Department, someone called Pitskhelauri writes two letters to Piotr Evtushevsky, Head of Tbilisi Criminal Investigation Department (*2). Actually they are unofficial notifications about the identity of the persons participating in this murder. Here is a translation of the Russian text (Tbilisi Criminal Investigation Department Materials, 1907):

“Dear Piotr Alexandrovich! Ilia Mtskheteli resident of village Mtskheta, Dusheti District, should know about Ilia Chavchavadze’s murder. If he did not participate in the crime, then he will know who did it as he knows who commits such a crime, that’s why I suppose to arrest him. Besides, it is inevitable to arrest a driver of phaeton. As I’ve investigated he knows people who committed Chavchavadze’s murder.

Sincerely, Yours
Pitskhelauri
Tpilisi city
September 4, 1907.”

This letter is interesting for the researchers as on 4 th September of 1907 it was known for the investigation that Bolshevik terrorist Iliko Imerlishvili was participating in Ilia Chavchavadze’s murder. The fact is that Iliko Imerlishvili’s nickname in a terrorist organization, which was created by Social-Democrat Labour Party members in Tbilisi, “Mtatsminda Group” was “Ilia Mtskheteli.”

Accordingly, about the identity of Iliko Imerlishvili and “Ilia Mtskheteli” was known for the police, however, the investigation is not done in this regard. This letter, existing in the above-mentioned archive material, is followed by the second letter sent to Piotr Evtushevsky, head of Tbilisi Criminal Investigation Department by Pitskhelauri, dated to the 5 th September of 1907 (See photo 1) (Tbilisi Criminal Investigation Department Materials, 1907). Here is an English translation of the Russian text:

“Dear Piotr Alexandrovich! Nizharadze, a suspected in Ilia Chavchavadze’s murder, is arrested in Borjomi; as I clarified secretly, a watch of the murdered was found with him; the driver of the Phaeton is arrested as well. They do not want to divulge about the watch as they think participants of the murder can be hid.

Sincerely, Yours
Pitskhelauri’
5 th of September 1907 year.”

I have mentioned about presumable participation of “Ilia Mtskheteli” and “Nizharadze” in Ilia Chavchavadze’s murder in my book published in 2011 “Social-Democrat Bolshevik Terrorists, Murderers of Ilia Chavchavadze.” (*3) I think that by highlighting a number of newly found documents, in my research I clearly substantiated that both identities or nicknames – “Ilia Mtskheteli” and “Imereli“ – belong to Iliko Imerlishvili and Iliko Imerlishvili directly participated in Ilia Chavchavadze’s murder. However, I did not publish the results and detailed analysis of my research carried out in order to identify “Nizharadze” – presumably participant in Ilia Chavchavadze’s murder. I was trying to find additional materials as this surname may contain too much important information about Joseph Jughashvili’s (Stalin) biography.

The fact is that in 1908 Joseph Jughashvili was arrested in Baku with a fake passport on the name of Gaioz Nizharadze. There are copies of the archived documents related to this issue in archive of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Georgia. One of the papers is a secret letter sent by the head of Gendarmerie Department Baku Governorate on 31 st May of 1908 to the deputy head of Gendarmerie Department of Kutaisi Governorate in Batumi (Former Party Archive Materials, 1908):

“On 25 th March of the current year a person residing at Baku with a fake passport on the name of Gaioz Nizharadze was arrested in Baku. During interrogation Nizharadze confessed that his real name is Joseph Jughashvili and he is a peasant of Didi Lilo village society of Tbilisi Governorate and District, and in 1902 he was arrested by Gendarmerie Department of Kutaisi Governorate in Batumi for propagation and exiled in Yakutsk for three years; in 1904 he left the place of exile willfully.

Attaching the photo in order to identify the person depicted on it and personated himself as Joseph Jughashvili; if he was accused and what kind of information do you have about him.
Gendarmerie Rotmister ...”

This document is well known for the historians, but the document retrieved by me about “Nizharadze” participating in Ilia Chavchavadze’s murder was unknown. That is why I have mentioned above that I would like to find out more materials and then publish my analysis. Unfortunately, because of objective reasons, which I will mention at the end of this paper, I did not have an opportunity to do this.

From currently discovered materials it becomes clear that a fake passport on the name of Gaioz Nizharadze was issued on 7 th April of the 1906 year (Островский, 2004). It is likely that Joseph Jughashvili “bought” it instead of the passport issued on the name of Giorgi Berdzenishvili which was seized by the police in March 1906.

There is another document which is related to the identity of Joseph Jughashvili and Gaioz Nizharadze. This is a copy of superscription (resolution) on a letter of the Head of Gendarmerie Department of Tbilisi Governorate dated by 10 th June of 1908 and sent to the Head of Gendarmerie Department of Baku Governorate on 31 st May of 1908 (Former Party Archive Materials, 1908):

“... A person with a fake passport on the name of Gaioz Nizharadze residing at Baku confessed that his real name is Joseph Jughashvili – a peasant of Didi Lilo village society of Tbilisi Governorate and District, and in 1902 he was arrested by Gendarmerie Department of Kutaisi Governorate in Batumi for the activity in Tbilisi Social-Democratic Party and exiled in Yakutsk for three years; in 1904 he left the place of exile willfully.”

In this document, Joseph Jughashvili’s party affiliation is already specified. In the next document – a secret letter by Deputy Head of Gendarmerie Department of Kutaisi Governorate in Batumi Region dated on June 13, 1908, sent to the Head of Gendarmerie Department of Baku Governorate (Former Party Archive Materials, 1908):

“In response of your letter dated by May 31, 1908 I would like to let you know that Joseph Jughashvili, a peasant of Didi Lilo village society of Tbilisi Governorate and District, was arrested and exiled in Yakutsk for three years for propagation in 1902. In fact in my subordinate clause he was related with the investigation of an anti-state case (*4). His crime was that he was a main head and teacher for Batumi labors as well as labors’ revolutionary movement which was expressed in distribution of propaganda leaflets and calls for overthrow the existing system. According to the photo, none of my employee and police officers could identify Jughashvili because of passing a long period of time.

Also, I think, it is necessary to add that the above-mentioned Jughashvili, as it is shown in the materials collected under my guidance, as accused person, he was indeed related with the investigation on the case of “the circle of Tbilisi Social-Democrat Labor Party” lead by Gendarmerie Department of Tbilisi Governorate and he was the main accused person.

Signature
Gendarmerie Rotmister...”

As I mentioned, the copies of the above-mentioned documents are kept in Party Archive of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Georgia. And below mentioned document is a resolution of General-Major Kozintsev, ahead of Gendarmerie Department Baku Governorate, dated by August 4, 1908, and sent to the head of Gendarmerie Department of Tbilisi Governorate (*5). The original document is kept in one of the materials of the Central Historic Archive of Georgia (See photo 2) (Caucasus Region Secret Police “Okhranka” Materials, 1908):

“Resolution No. 4287

On 4 th of August 1908 in Baku I, the head of Baku Gendarmerie Province Department, General-Major Kozintsev, discussed the correspondence in order to state the political reliability of a person who was named as Gaioz Nizharadze and in fact, who seemed to be Joseph Jughashvili, and I found out as follows:

On 25 th of March of the current year Baku Criminal Investigation Department arrested an unknown person who names himself as Gaioz Nizharadze resident of village Maglaki of Kutaisi district, and which had a party correspondence during searching. In the correspondence on this issue it was cleared out that Nizharadze is Joseph Jughashvili - a peasant of Didi Lilo village society of Tbilisi Province and District, and in 1902 he was related with the investigation by Kutaisi Gendarmerie Province Department according to article 251 and Tbilisi Gendarmerie Province Department, the first part of article 251. Finally the case has been solved administratively and Jughashvili was exiled in the Eastern Siberia under an open supervision of police and from where he has escaped and he was wanted by the police department circular on the 1 st of May 1904. Since 25 th of March of the current year Joseph Jughashvili is arrested in Baku prison. I suppose to exile Joseph Jughashvili for three years in the Eastern Siberia under supervision of police.

Verified: the above-mentioned correspondence should be sent to Baku in a disposal of city head.
Signature:
Gendarmerie General-Major Kozintsev.” (*6)

Information about Joseph Jughashvili’s activity under the surname of “Nizharadze” and his arrest in March 1908 is provided not only in Lavrenti Beria’s book but in other authors’ works as well, including modern ones; I will mention this below. Now, I would like to note that in the archive document mentioned above considering “Nizharadze” as a killer of Ilia Chavchavadze, put things in a new light on the version drawn by a friend of the youth of Joseph Jughashvili (Stalin),
Iioseb Iremashvili. His point of view is expressed in his book published in 1932 in Berlin: “Stalin und die Tragödie Georgians” (Stalin and the Tragedy of Georgia). There is written that Joseph Jughashvili had a relation with Ilia Chavchavadze’s murder.

Consequently, on the one hand, the concurrence of the surnames directly suggests Joseph Jughashvili’s participation in Ilia Chavchavadze’s murder. On the other hand, while working on the materials of Ilia Chavchavadze’s murder, while researching materials kept in Georgian archives about physical murderers of Ilia – Iliko Imerlishvili, Ivane Inashvili, Pavle Pshavlishvili, and Gigla Berbitchashvili, I could not find any other allusion about the participation of “Nizharadze” or Joseph Jughashvili in this murder.

As it is said in the above-mentioned document “Nizharadze”, suspected in Ilia Chavchavadze’s murder, had Ilia’s watch with him when he was arrested. I consider it interesting for the reader that Stalin, as well as many other people, had a hobby – he was collecting the watches. In 1940-1949 years in the memories of ahead of “Sovnarkom” (*7) affairs I. E. Chaadaev mentioned that Stalin was collecting the watches and he had a collection including both wristwatches and the so-called pocket watches (Куманев, 2005). I have investigated identity, revolutionary activities of terrorists, and members of “Red Detachment” acting in that period in Borjomi and surrounding territories. One among them was Alexander Tsagurishvili – “Poria”. He was one of the most famous robbers and terrorists acting in Borjomi Gorge for that period of time. This person was connected and had friendly relations with the participants of Ilia Chavchavadze’s
murder, Bolshevik terrorist Iliko Imerlishvili, as well as with Kamo (Ter-Petrosyan), Batchua Kuprashvili, and others. However, I could not find any terrorist acting under the name of Gaioz Nizharadze or just Nizharadze in Borjomi in 1906-1908.

But, during my academic research, I was able to found out that in March 1908 there was someone Sh. Nizharadze, who was imprisoned at Bailov prison in Baku with Joseph Jughashvili. In one of the documents we read (Former Party Archive Materials, 1908):

“Stalin was imprisoned at Bailov prison, in the third cell, there was Sergo Orjonikidze in this cell as well... we wanted to escape from the third cell and we brought Sh. Nizharadze inside.”

I have discovered a photo of Shalva Nizharadze son of Vasil in the files of Gendarmerie Department of Tbilisi Governorate, but I could not find any additional material about him yet and I still continue my investigation concerning this issue.

Herewith, I would like to mention that some authors of the works about Joseph Jughashvili variously refer “Nizharadze” in connection with him. For example, V. S. Kraskova in her book “Crimes into the Kremlin Walls” writes (Краскова, 1999):

“There were more people inside the dungeon in which Vishinski had appeared than it was possible. Bed was occupied by one person who was brought there in March. In police papers he was mentioned as Gaioz Nizharadze. Prisoners called him Koba, but his real name was Joseph Jughashvili, or Stalin. In the corner, a leg-bended, backwarded from everyone, he was learning “future language” Esperanto during the hours.” (*8)

M. S. Aldanov wrote (Гусляров, 2003):

“After a “failure” of the first revolution Lenin’s right hand in implementation of “expropriation” became – at that time already a well-known Caucasian “militant” with a revolutionary nicknames: “Koba”, “Davit”, “Nizharadze,” “Chizhikovi,”“Ivanovich” – almighty Russian dictator Joseph Jughashvili.”

According to another author, Soviet diplomat (*9) G. Z. Besedovski, a fugitive in the Western Europe in 1929, Stalin was in agreement about the actions of robberies with Lenin (Беседовский, 1931):

“Joseph Jughashvili – Koba ... started executing the orders of his leader and got a new nickname. Now he was called Nizharadze. He started leading a militant activity under this nickname. Soon Nizharadze found a very good leader for a combat organization, Armenian, Petrosyan.” (*10)

According to Besedovski, Nizharadze – Stalin was not only a leader of expropriations, but he was participating in those actions as well (Беседовский, 1931):

“Nizharadze fired the first bomb from the roof of Sumbatov’s house during the expropriation in Tbilisi at Erevan Square on June 13, 1907.”

For various reasons, I was unable to find the archival documents, which can prove the opinions of the above-mentioned authors. However, considering that a number of authors think that Stalin was directly leaded and participated in the expropriation on June 13, 1907. I think maintaining the research in this direction will give us quite interesting results. Moreover, several archive materials unknown until now were discovered, as well as separated documents which are about episodes concerning the participation of Joseph Jughashvili’s closest surrounding in the expropriation on Erevan Square on June 13, 1907.

As for Nizharadze, while investigating his identity, it was found that knyaz (*11) Nizharadze is mentioned concerning the event that is taking place on the edge of 1905 and 1906, in a book of a famous mystic and philosopher George Gurdjieff residing in Georgia – “Meetings with Famous People.” (*12) At the beginning of the 1900s “Knyaz Nizharadze” was a participant of an expedition in the countries of the Persian Gulf with George Gurdjieff in order to search a secret (esoteric) knowledge. According to existing notes, in the above-mentioned book of George Gurdjieff a separated chapter was dedicated to “Knyaz Nizharadze”, but for some reason, the author did not publish it.

Some of the authors consider Joseph Jughashvili under the name of “Knyaz Nizharadze,” as they think he was a student of George Gurdjieff and they interpret the relation of these two persons variously (*13). From the documents discovered during my research, it is clear that in March-April 1906 George Gurdjieff was teaching how to make explosives, barricade fighting in the city, and other “useful skills” to the group of six persons including Bolsheviks and Mensheviks.

The teaching place was located on the second floor of a famous “Avlabari Illegal Printing House” building. Moreover, a number of sources name him as a police agent, a traitor of the so-called “Military – Technical Group” and “Avlabari Illegal Printing House”. Historian Alexander Kotchlavashvili dedicated broad research to this issue under the title – “His Real Identity,” which is kept in his archive and is not published yet. Furthermore, the author translated his research in Russian as well, but the title of the Russian version is “George Gurdjieff – an Agent of Tsarist “Okhranka” (Kotchlavashvili Personal Archive, Division of the Literature and Art Materials, 1961). According to Alexander Kotchlavashvili, George Gurdjieff was “a Secret Agent” of Tsarist Government. However, from the analysis of archive materials that I have found, George Gurdjieff espionage activities cannot be established for that period of time. On the contrary, as it turns out that he was in close relation with Social-Democrats. According to one source, George Gurdjieff was recommended as a teacher for “Military – Technical Group” by Bolshevik Mikha Botchoridze, and according to another one, by a famous Menshevik Silibistro Jibladze. It is interesting that during the Soviet period George Gurdjieff was named as a Menshevik (Заря Востока, 1937).

According to archive documents, George Gurdjieff lived in Khashuri (*14) in January 1906 (Gendarmerie Department of Tbilisi Governorate Materials, 1906). Moreover, he was teaching the activists of the Social-Democrat Party including Vladimer (Valerian) Bilanov (Bilanishvili) how to make explosives. Presumably, Iliko Imerlishvili, Alexander (Sasha) Oboladze, Gigla Berbitchashvili (*15) and others together with him were mentioned as members of armed detachments
of both parties (*16) of Social-Democrats, created in order to avoid Armenian-Tatar clashes in autumn 1905. According to various accounts, these armed detachments were commanded by Isidore Ramishvili from the Menshevik party and Joseph Jughashvili from the Bolshevik party.

Therefore, it is interesting and noteworthy as some authors consider that not George Gurdjieff, or another person, or even a group of persons, but Joseph Jughashvili himself was an apostate of “Avlabari Illegal Printing House”. At the beginning “Avlabari Illegal Printing House” was located in a basement and in March-April, 1906 rooms of upper floors were used for “teaching” of the united so-called “Military – Technical Group” of Bolshevik-Mensheviks. In addition, if we consider that the closest friend of Joseph Jughashvili, Mikha Botchoridze (Botchorishvili) was connected to “Avlabari Illegal Printing House.” I think it is required to carry out additional research about this issue.


Conclusion:

In foreign archives and fonds including France, the United State of America, there are a number of materials and documents which deals with Joseph Jughashvili’s (Stalin) biography. For example, from the analysis of materials that I have revealed, we can find more answers on issues concerning identification of “Nizharadze”, a presumable participant in Ilia Chavchavadze’s murder, and his possible equating with Joseph Jughashvili in the Russian archive materials of Hoover Institution at Stanford University. Those materials can provide answers that can confirm or deny such identifications.

Although the information and documents, examined in this article, are to some extent contradictory, the analysis of them makes it evident that Joseph Jughashvili’s Biography is not sufficiently studied.


(*1) Ilia Chavchavadze was the great Georgian writer, sometimes called “Father of Nation”. According to archival and other historical documents, four people participated in the assassination of Ilia Chavchavadze. On August 30, 1907, the killers awaited Ilia Chavchavadze’s phaeton on the road between Tsitsamuri and Saguramo, a few kilometers away from Saguramo. Ilia Chavchavadze and his servant were killed and Ilia’s wife was brutally beaten.

(*2) Peotr Evtushevski was investigating Ilia Chavchavadze’s murder.

(*3) It is interesting that “Nizharadze” and “Ilia Mtskheteli” are mentioned as suspected in Ilia Chavchavadze’s murder in the table of contents of above-mentioned archive material.

(*4) There was a subordinate department of Tbilisi “Okhranka” in Batumi, so-called Batumi “Okhranka.”

(*5) Received on August 7, 1908

(*6) The copy of this document, as it seems from the analysis of the text that it is taken from Baku archive, I found it in Lavrenti Beria’s report published as a book, see: L. Beria. On the Issue of History of Transcaucasian Bolshevik Organization (Report at Tbilisi Party Meeting July 21-22, 1935). The 6 th edition. Tb. 1945, pp. 208-209. (In Georgian)

(*7) Council of Public Commissars of the Soviet Union.

(*8) В. С. Краскова. Преступления за кремлевской стеной. Минск. 1999, с. 113–114

(*9) the former left-wing Socialist-Revolutionaries

(*10) Kamo (Arshak Ter-Petrosyan).

(*11) Nobleman.

(*12) The fact that George Gurdjieff was in Tbilisi during those years is confirmed by the archival documents that I have found. I will devote special research about this issue in another paper.

(*13) There are a number of materials about the relation of George Gurdjieff and Stalin-Nizharadze in currently published popular occult, esoteric literature, as well as in Internet resources. The speech is about the topic such as esoteric-mystical schools, occult practice

(*14) Mikhailovo at this time.

(*15) They all were Bolsheviks.

(*16) Mensheviks and Bolsheviks

Photo 1 Tbilisi Criminal Investigation Department Materials, 1907

Photo 2 Caucasus Region Secret Police “Okhranka” Materials, 1908


References

Caucasus Region Secret Police “Okhranka” Materials. (1908). Secret documents and materials. The Georgian Central Historical Archives. Fond 94. Description 1. Case 157, p. 34

Former Party Archive Materials, (1908). Relation with prisoners. Archive of Ministry of Internal Affairs of Georgia. Division II. Fond 8. Description 2 (I). Case 42, p. 33-39

Former Party Archive Materials. (1908). Copies of secret documents. Archive of Ministry of Internal Affairs of Georgia, Division II. Fond 8. Description 5. Case 207, p. 27, 28, 53

Gendarmerie Department of Tbilisi Governorate Materials. (1906). Documents from region. The Georgian Central Historical Archive. Fond 153. Description 1. Case 761, p. 51

Jurakhonovich, K. S. (2020). Pilgrimage Tourism in Uzbekistan; Problems and Solutions. Electronic Research Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, 2 (II), pp. 262-265

Kotchlavashvili Personal Archive. (1961). George Gurdjieff and secret police. Central Archive of the Contemporary History. Division of the Literature and Art. Fond 269, Case 3. p.1-37

Simashvili, T. (2020). Fake Grave of Stalin’s Father and Modernity: Materials for Biography of Joseph Stalin. Electronic Research Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, 2 (III), pp.
23-37

Tbilisi Criminal Investigation Department Materials. (1907). Murder of Ilia Chavchavadze, The Georgian Central Historical Archive. Fond 97. Description 2. Case 35, p. 25, 26.

Беседовский Г., З. (1931). На путях к термидору. Париж. с. 350, 351

Гусляров Е. (2003). Сталин в жизни: систематизированный свод воспоминаний современников. Москва. с. 60

Краскова.В.(1999). Преступления за кремлевской стеной. Минск. с. 113–114

Куманев Г. (2005). Говорят сталинские наркомы, Смоленск., с. 512

Островский А. (2004). Кто стоял за спиной Сталина?, Москва. с. 291

Vladimer Narsia - Canon Lawyer, Cardiff University, UK. Chairman of Religious Dialogue for Peace in Georgia.


Executive Summary

This policy brief analyzes the role of the Georgian Orthodox Church (GOC) in Georgian society, particularly in the context of promoting the European integration process. The paper consists of three sections: sermons and preaching that influence European integration policy; the Church-State nexus as a non-secular alliance; and the weak international links of the GOC. All three sections look at the GOC from the perspective of its level of support for Georgia’s European integration policy. While Patriarch of Georgia Ilia II can be considered an ecumenical and equivalently a European minded leader based on some of his statements, his position has not been shared by all Georgian primates 1 and, in this paper, this ambiguity is considered a threat for the state’s European policy. Overall, the paper assumes that the GOC is in the primary stage of developing a clearer and more lucid positive role, which would allow it to avoid polarizing the society over the critical question of the European policy.


Introduction

Georgia’s European integration policy is more than a political agenda; it also impacts social and cultural issues in the country, areas that traditionally fall under the influence of the GOC. The position of the Church is widely acknowledged and accepted in public debates in Georgian society, which makes it an important factor in the European integration process, as voters 2 may be influenced by anti-Western primates’ moods and their sermons against Europe.
This policy brief examines the GOC as a civil institution, which can serve the purpose of social consolidation or integration. That means that the Georgian government’s policy toward the Church, as well as the role of the Church as a supporting institution in the country’s European integration policy, are viewed as decisive in order to achieve the level of social harmony required to achieve the government’s aspiration to join the European family. Any delayed response to these sensitive issues could lead to the grievous result of splitting and polarizing society.


Sermons and Preaching

In Georgian society clerics carry considerable weight. Their commands are respected by
thousands of believers and quite often are taken as “priestly” advice without question. This tendency has been warmly welcomed by government officials. In this context, it is necessary to pay special attention to the sermons 3 that cultivating fears in Georgian society and present Europe as a threat for Georgian spiritual traditions. 4 The Holy Synod does not refute these sermons or clerics, which gives critics a basis to claim that GOC officially supports this position. Patriarch Ilia II follows the ongoing discussion 5 concerning the European integration process and, at times, speaks in favor of Georgia’s alignment with the EU. But not all of his statements support the integration process. In 2014 he strongly opposed the anti-discrimination law, which was viewed as a necessary step to secure the Association Agreement between EU and Georgia. 6 Primates are also concerned about the growing tendency of Georgians receiving their higher education in Europe. It was rather confusing when the Patriarch Ilia II expressed worries for young people receiving an education abroad. He called on Georgian parents to not send their
children abroad by pointing to Canada, and implicitly Western culture, as a threat for Georgian traditions. 7 Metropolitan Ioane Gamrekeli echoed the same concerns in 2015: “Instead of the verbal promises Europe demands from us, morally unacceptable relationships are to be acknowledged as a legal norm .” 8 The effective EU and NATO introductory programs organized by the Center for Development and Democracy (CDD) can be considered as a successful policy in response to the Church’s antagonist position toward Europe, illustrated by the Primates’ sermons. 9 But the locum tenens for Patriarch Illia II, Metropolitan Shio Mujiri, is still vague about his position on European values, based on his sermon concerning post-modernism and the European scholarly tradition. 10 To sum up, Georgian primates appear to offer tepid support for the government’s Euro-integration policy. The Holy Synod has made dozens of offensive sermons about Europe, 11 however, which may negatively impact on the European Integration process rather than support it due to the Church influence over the Georgian society.


Church-State Alliance

The concept of secularism demands the separation of church and state at the institutional level. Even though the Georgian constitution stresses the principle of separation, its practical implementation is problematic and such founding principles are often misinterpreted by the Georgian authorities. Georgian Prime Minister Giorgi Kvirikashvili criticized secularism in its classical sense in 2017: “We believe that our nation features a unique model [of church-state relations] in the world.” 12 The medieval model known as “Church-State Symphony” is still alive in the modern theo-political discourse in Georgia and is often used by religious and political leaders to strengthen their established power. Previously, the Patriarch of Georgia also emphasized the role of religion in Georgian politics as an immutable fact and important for democratic society. 13
Since 1990s the stagnancy in Church-State relationships defends the status quo for GOC to become involved in the Georgian politics. For example, in 2017 the Patriarch’s proposal to discuss the idea of reinstituting the constitutional monarchy was immediately endorsed by Georgian authorities, 14 just as the debate over the decriminalization of drugs 15 was suspended following a proposal by the Church. 16 In both cases, the GOC has managed to exert influence on Georgian politics.
Since 2012 clerical interference in political affairs has become increasingly obvious. Clergies expect the authorities to make decisions in accordance with their confessional viewpoints, mainly anti-Western, arguing that: EU is an attack against Orthodoxy; if we are Orthodox, we should be aligned with Russia, not Europe, etc. 17 Even the Patriarch himself has praised the Russian President Vladimir Putin by saying that “Putin is a wise man who will remedy the situation in Georgia.” 18 Furthermore, in 2014 the Georgian government created the precedent of restoring a soviet-like institution, the State Agency for Religious Issues. The institution is keen to conduct oversight on religions, mainly minorities—an approach, which has been repeatedly criticized by religious communities and civil society 19 .
To summarize, the Church-State relationship in Georgia is closer to the medieval concept of partnership than the secular principles of institutional separation. Political and religious thought is of a particular concern of Church-State overlap. The Georgian government still lacks the readiness to exercise decision-making freedom, especially on issues where religion has a place but not legitimate power. In democratic states government officials separate their personal opinions about religious leaders from public policy. Their viewpoint can be taken along with others or simply rejected.


Weak international links

For the GOC, international links are essential to escape from Russian isolationism. Furthermore, it will be helpful for the Georgian government as well if the GOC makes supportive statements in various international religious forums regarding the state’s European integration policy. However, on May 20, 1997 GOC left the World Council of Churches (WCC) and Conference of European Churches (CEC), two of the leading European church forums and subsequently became a victim of Russian propaganda. 20 Today the GOC is reluctant to actively participate in any ecumenical or inter-faith dialogue formats. For instance, primates from the GOC are taking part in the International Commission for Anglican-Orthodox Theological Dialogue, as one of the ecumenical forums today. This commission issues official theological documents, which have been signed by all its participants including the GOC 21 , but the documents are never easily accessible if at all on the Church official web-pages and the events are not publicized. Furthermore, the Patriarch of Georgia has issued an extraordinary supportive call for Georgian Catholics living in the southern part of Georgia, stating: “Don’t forget that we are the same as
we believe in one God, the Farther, Son and Holy Spirit,” 22 but this position has not been supported by the official position of the GOC. For example, when fundamentalist GOC groups accused the Roman Catholic Pope of being a heretic during his 2016 23 visit to Tbilisi, the Church did not punish any member of the group.
The pan-Orthodox relationship is one of the main concerns of the GOC. In 2016 the GOC suddenly refused to participate in the Crete Counsel without providing a real explanation. 24 This came as a surprise to many Orthodox leaders and the Constantinople Patriarchate, 25 because the inter-faith and even pan-Orthodox relationships are assumed as a way of separating from Russian isolationism in which the GOC has been living for centuries.
Besides, the GOC does not promote Western theological studies. Those who receive diplomas from leading Western theological universities are denied positions in the GOC.
In brief, interfaith dialogue promotes the European values of mutual cooperation to come together across lines of faith and culture. This is a courageous call for religions in 21 st century, which breaks isolation and creates opportunities to learn how to coexistence. If it does not accept this dialogue, the GOC would be isolated from rest of the Christendom and abandoned only to the Russian Theo-imperialistic ideology, that employs the eschatological concept of the Russian state featuring as the “third (and the last) Rome”.


Conclusion and Recommendations

This policy brief presents a bird-eye view of the main problems on a specific set of issues. Based on this analysis, several conclusions can be drawn. First, GOC does not have a well-structured position toward the country’s Europeanisation process. This may negatively impact public opinion about the State’s euro-integration policy. Second, the modern practice of church-state relations in Georgia does not follow the principles of the separation of church and state that are guaranteed by the Georgian Constitution. These principles are abrogated by government officials who accept the Church’s position as “priestly” advice. Finally, the Georgian Orthodox Church’s isolationist, inter-faith policy negatively affects the European integration process, inter alia promoting western values in the Georgian society.

 Recommendations for the GOC:
 The Holy Synod should respond to inappropriate sermons.
 Ecumenical cooperation of the GOC should be publicly reported.
 Cooperation with advanced European universities should be improved.
 A social doctrine, created in cooperation with the public sector, should be considered a
high priority.

 Recommendations for the government:
 The “awkward marriage” between the Georgian Orthodox Church and the government
should be modified according to secular principles.
 The Soviet policy regarding religious control, which is conducted by the State Agency for
Religious Issues, must end. The State Agency must only function as a promoter of inter-
religious activity and a facilitator of state-religion affairs.
 The government needs to take steps to make sure that inter-religious study is taken
seriously at schools and universities to promote the cultural and religious mediation
process and support tolerance in Georgia's multi-religious society.

 Recommendation for civil society:
 The social doctrine, a manual for the GOC that outlines its relation with the “outer realm,” (the state and civil society) should be written in cooperation with the public sector. The document should cover the following issues: Church-State relationships; Church and Nationality; Christian Ethics and Human Rights; Church and Secular Education;
Christian Family and Morality; Church and Culture; Church and Inter-Faith/Inter-
Religious Dialogue; Church and Bioethics and etc.


Georgian Institute of Politics (GIP) is a Tbilisi-based non-profit, non-partisan, research and analysis organization. GIP works to strengthen the organizational backbone of democratic institutions and promote good governance and development through policy research and advocacy in Georgia.
The views and opinions expressed in this article are the author’s alone and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Georgian Institute of Politics.
HOW TO QUOTE THIS DOCUMENT:
Vladimer Narsia. "Church and Politics or Church in Politics: How does the Georgian Orthodox Church Impact Georgia’s European Integration Policy?", Policy Brief No. 14, Georgian Institute of Politics, May
2018.
Georgian Institute of Politics, 2018
Tel: +995 599 99 02 12
Email: info(at)gip.ge
www.gip.ge


1 Primates are priests of very high rank in the Christian Church.
2 National Democratic Institute‘s poll (2017, June). Available at: https://new.ndi.org/sites/default/files/NDI%20poll_June_2017_Political_ENG_final.pdf
3 DFWatch. (2014, April 30). Orthodox Church against EU in Georgian parliament, Available at: http://dfwatch.net/orthodox-church-against-eu-in-georgian-parliament-57404-28332
4 (2018). მეუფე სპირიდონი 17 მაისის შესახებ. [Online Video]. (2018, May 23). Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pYcAd0AwOxQ. (Accessed: 16 January 2018).; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=21Kq0HypGX4
5 Patriarch’s response to Mr. Stefan Fule: “...I want to tell you that I am convinced in that for a long time already. See: Civil Georgia. (2014, March 4). Patriarch: 'Church Will Do Everything to Make Georgia EU Member. Available at: http://www.civil.ge/eng/article.php?id=27008
6 Civil Georgia. (2014, April 28). Georgian Church Speaks Out Against Anti-Discrimination Bill. Available at: http://www.civil.ge/eng/article.php?id=27175
7 Civil Georgia. (2010, October 3). Patriarch: 'Refrain from Sending Kids Abroad for Education. Available at: http://www.civil.ge/eng/article.php?id=22722
8 Social Media: Facebook account- The Georgian Way.
9 CDD. (2017). Georgian Orthodox Church visits in Brussels. [Online Video]. 2 January 2017. Available from:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=btES1DiotG8&feature=youtu.be. (Accessed: 16 January 2018); See also:
“Georgia: Project Aims To Boost Orthodox Church’s Support For EU Integration”. Available at: http://gip.ge/georgia-project-aims-to-boost-orthodox-churchs-support-for-eu-integration/
10 Patriarch’s meeting with clergies and psychologists. 09 Mar 2018. See: http://patriarchate.ge/geo/katolikos-
patriarqis-shexvedra-samghvdeloebastan-da/ [Accessed: 11 March 2018]
11 Lekso Gelashvili. (2018). About Anti-Discrimination Law. [Online Video]. 1 May 2014. Available from:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jxwDmzoWihU&t=1432s+&+https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv=diu_PDIllvw. [Accessed: 16 January 2018].
12 Civil Georgia. (2017, July 26). CSOs: PM Kvirikashvili’s Church Statements ‘Irresponsible’, Available at:
http://www.civil.ge/eng/article.php?id=30295
13 “Kviris Palitra” N31 (224) 2-8 August 1999, p. 8.
14 Jam News, (2017, June 19) Long live the king! Possible restoration of monarchy considered in Georgia! Available
at: https://jam-news.net/?p=44987
15 First Channel. (2018, January 12). Patriarchate believes that discussion on drug decriminalization should be
suspended. Available at: https://1tv.ge/en/news/patriarchate-believes-discussion-drug-decriminalization-suspended/
16 First Channel. (2018, January 12). Irakli Kobakhidze - Discussion on drug policy should be continued with
everyone, including the Patriarchate. Available, at: https://1tv.ge/en/news/irakli-kobakhidze-discussion-drug-
policy-continued-everyone-including-patriarchate/
17 MDF Georgia.See: Ant-Western Propaganda: http://mdfgeorgia.ge/uploads/Antidasavluri-ENG-web.pdf
18 Zviadauri Ilia, (2013, April 15). The Georgian Orthodox Church: Some Aspects of Its Rhetoric and Practice.
Publication: Eurasia Daily Monitor Volume: 10 Issue: 70 Available at: https://jamestown.org/program/the-
georgian-orthodox-church-some-aspects-of-its-rhetoric-and-practice/
19 Human Rights Education and Monotoring Center (EMC) Review: Available at: https://emc.org.ge/uploads/products/pdf/February_July_2016.pdf
20 World Council of Church. (2004, January 1). Country Profile: Georgia. Available at:
https://www.oikoumene.org/en/resources/documents/wcc-programmes/justice-diakonia-and-responsibility-for-
creation/ecumenical-solidarity/country-profile-georgia
21 Ecupatria. (2016, October 16). International Commission for Anglican–Orthodox Theo-logical Dialogue
Communiqué. Available at: https://www.ecupatria.org/2016/10/06/international-commission-for-anglican-
orthodox-theological-dialogue-communique/
22 Journal Jvari Vazisa. Ed. 1998 (1). p.4. (Sermons taken in the villages, called: Ude and Araly)
23 Euronews. (2016). Pope Francis takes first trip to Georgia, but not everyone is happy. [Online Video]. 16 January
2018. Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iX_GPNKsV0o. [Accessed: 16 January 2018].
24 Holy Council. 2016. Official Documents of the Holy and Great Council of the Orthodox Church. Available at:
https://www.holycouncil.org/
25 Interview of the Constantinople Patriarchate on TV Imedi. (2017, December 17) Available
at: https://www.imedi.ge/ge/video/18694/konstantinopolis-patriarqis-bartlome-pirvelis-eqskluziuri-interviu-imedis-kvirashi

Speech by the Rt.Hon. Lord Robertson, Secretary General of NATO


Ladies and Gentlemen,

It is a great pleasure to be here. I have often heard of Georgia's wonderful reputation, for its thermal springs, its excellent wines, and its legendary hospitality. I am very pleased to be able to confirm for myself that these treasures are indeed worthy of their reputation. And I am not at all surprised that Jason and the Argonauts found the Golden Fleece here in Georgia!

Georgia's international reputation is growing in another area as well: as a newly independent country that is making a serious and successful transition into a modern European state. The reforms that this country has undergone -- sometimes painfully, but always with determination -- are paying off. Georgia's economy is recovering. Investment is increasing. And your democratic credentials are admirable. Elections are run fairly, people come out to vote in significant numbers, and the press is free and lively.

Much of this success is due to the leadership of President Shevardnadze, who retains the respect and affection of the international community. I congratulate him, and all the Georgian people, on the progress you have made until now in building a more democratic, more prosperous and more stable country.

Georgia's success in building for the future is a key test for broader European security. Why? Because we realise, that our security is inseparably linked with that of other countries. We believe that security is only possible, if, within Europe and its surrounding area, there is stability and a commitment to solve problems together. In short: the more secure our neighbours are, the more secure we are.

That is why co-operation and dialogue between states and institutions have become central planks of European security. Co-operation is no longer just a peripheral activity; in the 21st Century, it is the foundation of a sound foreign policy. Security is something no single nation can provide completely on its own. Only co-operation - both regional and international - offers the possibility to create the kind of long-term security and stability any nation seeks. Only nations that remain outward-looking, that connect to the wider world, will prosper.

Georgia has clearly understood this lesson -- and your approach has been exemplary. Georgia has been a member of the OSCE since 1992. In 1999 it became a member of the Council of Europe. And it has signed a Partnership and Co-operation Agreement with the European Union.

NATO, too, believes fundamentally in the importance of cooperation when it comes to security. The peacekeeping operations in the Balkans stand as vivid testimony.

As you all know, in Bosnia and in Kosovo there are currently two major peacekeeping operations, involving almost 70,000 troops. The core of these troops is provided by NATO member states. But there are many more nations who participate. Indeed, troops from Europe, North America, Africa, Latin America and even Asia are operating under the same command -- including, of course, the Georgian infantry platoon. Slowly but surely this unique international coalition is pushing the Balkans towards a sustainable peace.

Indeed, nothing illustrates better the fundamentally changed nature of European security than this coalition. Countries which were once adversaries are now natural partners. For the first time in modern history, European countries can ensure peace and security with each other, rather than against each other. For the first time there is a genuine common interest in working together to find solutions to shared problems.

The fact that NATO and non-NATO countries are co-operating so closely and so frequently also reflects the fundamentally changed nature of NATO itself. It is no exaggeration to say that since the end of the East-West confrontation NATO has changed beyond recognition.

Instead of being focused on a single mission -- collective defence against an adversary -- NATO has turned into a motor of Euro-Atlantic security co-operation and a catalyst for political change. It has adopted a new approach to security based on the principle of co-operation with non-member countries and other institutions. And the benefits of what NATO does extend throughout the Euro-Atlantic area, including the Caucasus.

The Partnership for Peace programme, launched six years ago, is the main framework through which the Alliance promotes cooperation. In essence, it is a programme of bilateral military co-operation between the Alliance and individual non-NATO nations. Behind this initiative was the desire of Allies to share their experience and expertise with the countries to NATO's East.

After the break-up of the Soviet Union, many of these countries were establishing, some of them for the first time, national security policies and defence ministries. We did not want to impose our views on anyone. But we believed that these countries could usefully draw on the wide experience of NATO members. That way, we could help these countries during a critical phase in their transition. Because it was in our very own security interest to see this transition succeed. Again, the more secure our neighbours are, the more secure we are.

Now, more than 6 years after the start of PfP, the number of Partners has grown to 26, involving countries coming from all points of the compass and from a range of security traditions. It is thus no exaggeration to say that the Partnership between the 19 NATO-members and the 26 Partners provides the most intensive programme of military-to-military co-operation ever conceived.

This programme has provided added momentum to the reform processes of many Partner nations, particularly concerning practical questions of how to organise and control military forces in democratic societies. And it has led to a degree of technical and conceptual interoperability among our forces that is unprecedented. In short, PfP has marked the beginning of a new security culture throughout Eurasia - a culture based on practical security co-operation.

As PfP has evolved, so the opportunities for Partners to have a say in this programme has constantly increased.

In the early days of PfP, for example, NATO would essentially offer its Partners a menu of activities, which they could choose from. Today, Partners are much more self-confident and eager to shape the programme together with Allies. The Partners contribute to the establishment of the Partnership Work Programme. In other words, they have understood that it is they who decide how far and how deep co-operation should go, and that, therefore, it is they who bear a certain responsibility for the future of these ndeavours. That is why they have remained so interested - and so active.

Georgia joined PfP in 1994 and since then has become one of its most active members. Our common activities focus on Civil Emergency Planning, civil-military relations, Defence Policy and Strategy, and defence reform. And there is potential for an even more fruitful partnership.

On a political level, NATO's co-operation with Partners finds its expression in the Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council (EAPC). EAPC provides a platform for Allies and Partners to discuss issues of common concern. It is also the political "roof" of Partnership for Peace.

The EAPC agenda covers a wide range of issues, such as regional security, energy security, and civil emergency planning. Georgia seized the opportunities offered by the EAPC, and has become one of the most active participants. Indeed, the first ever EAPC regional security co-operation event was held in Georgia.

Over the years, Georgia has hosted a significant number of EAPC activities. For example, an important seminar on Regional Security Cooperation in the Caucasus took place in Gudauri in October 1998 and an EAPC Seminar on defence budgeting was held here just a few months ago. The number of activities Georgia has initiated or offered to host in 2001 is equally impressive.

These conferences are very good examples of the EAPC potential to contribute to dialogue, and to help promote the conditions necessary for regional stability. Of course, NATO cannot and does not claim a lead role in facilitating the peace processes in this region. That responsibility rests first and foremost with the parties of the region, who must find a way to agree on a peaceful way forward.

And of course, the OSCE and the United Nations play a vital role, as does the GUUAM. Through PfP and EAPC, NATO stands ready to support these efforts. The Alliance firmly believes that this region deserves peace and stability -- and the economic investment and prosperity that go with it.

It is also a reality that there will be no comprehensive settlement of the disputes in the region without the participation of the region's major powers -- including, of course Russia. The Georgian relationship with Russia is, obviously, a vital one.

NATO considers it a positive step that the withdrawal of Russian military equipment from Georgia is underway and hopes that it will be completed, as was foreseen in the agreement reached at the Istanbul OSCE Summit. This is a sign that we can achieve progress; and that issues can be resolved through negotiation.

This same principle underpins NATO's relationship with Russia. Our disagreements during the Kosovo crisis made it obvious that the NATO-Russia relationship is still burdened by Cold War stereotypes. But we are getting beyond them, because we know that in the long run we will not be able to achieve increased security in Europe or the Caucasus without Russia, let alone against it.

Russia, in turn, knows that co-operation with NATO is essential if this large country is to successfully manage its challenging political and economic transition. Let us not forget: for several years now, NATO and Russian troops are working side-by-side on the ground in the Balkans. This shows that NATO and Russia can work together where it counts -- and that they simply cannot afford to ignore each other.

It is this logic of inclusion and co-operation that also characterises the other co-operative ties NATO has developed over the past decade: the distinct NATO-Ukraine relationship, for example, or the Dialogue with countries of the Southern Mediterranean. The specifics of our co-operation may differ in each case, but the rationale for our co-operation is always the same: the more secure our neighbours are, the more secure we are.

Ladies and Gentlemen,

Let me conclude. What I have tried to convey to you in my short remarks today is a sense of the importance we attach to the logic of partnership. I wanted to convey to you how pleased we are to see co-operation develop here, in the Caucasus, just as it has developed successfully in Europe. The relationship of the Republic of Georgia with NATO is dynamic, evolving -- and rewarding, for both NATO and Georgia.

Of course, the countries of the Caucasus have their own specifics, and their own dynamics. NATO does not have the solution to all the problems here, nor elsewhere. But policies of co-operation will strengthen security for us all. We have a unique chance to turn Europe into a region of co-operation and stability, in which every country has its say, and none considers itself threatened. NATO is determined to work with Georgia, and all the countries of the region, to make this ambitious goal a reality.